STRATIGRAPHY

Lecture -08
• Stratigraphy is the branch of geology which deals with
the formation, composition, sequence and correlation of
stratified rock.
• The basic objective of stratigraphy is to reconstructed
geological history by study of rocks and their sequence.
• Sedimentary rocks are the fundamental materials of
stratigraphy. These stratigraphies are more depended on
sedimentation.
• Sedimentation refers to the process responsible for the
formation of sedimentary rocks including their origin,
weathering, transportation, deposition, diagenesis (post
depositional change) and lithification.
Principles of Stratigraphy

1. Superposition

The oldest rocks are found on the bottom and

the youngest rocks on the top.

youngest

oldest
Principles of Stratigraphy

2. Original Horizontality

sediments are deposited at the earth’s surface

in flat layers
Principles of Stratigraphy

3. Cross-Cutting Relationships

Rock that are cut by another geologic feature are older

than the feature that cuts them.

Igneous Fault
Intrusion Erosion
Principles of Stratigraphy

4. Rule of Inclusions

If pieces of rock A are included in rock B,

rock A formed before rock B.

B
A
Principles of Stratigraphy

5. Faunal Succession

Systematic sequence of fossils with time.

Extinct fossils do not reappear in younger rocks.
• Stratigraphic Classification:
• Stratigrafic classification is the systematic subdivision of rocks
base on their properties and position in the sequence of
geological events.
• Apart from stratigraphic position, rock properties such as
composition, colour, texture, structure, cemenatation,
weathering properties, geomorphological characters, mineral
and fossil assemblage, depositional environment and age
involved.
• The classification is not only applicable to all sedimentary rock
but also applicable in igneous and metamorphic rock and so far
as they pertain to stratigraphy.
• The succession of rocks based on their properties and position
in the sequence of geologic events forms the stratigraphic
column.
Types of Stratigraphy

Type Subdivisions Property

Lithostratigraphy Lithostratigraphic Unit Lithology

Pedostratigraphy Pedostratigraphic Unit Buried Soils

Biostratigraphy Bio Zones Fossil Content

Chronostratigraphy Chronostratigraphic Units Time Relationships

(Period, Epoch, Age)
Geochronostratigraphy Geochronostratigraphic Unit Time Relationships
(System, Series, Stage)
Magnetostratigraphy Magnetic Reversals, Chrons Magnetic Polarity

Chemostratigraphy Isotope Zones Chemical

Characteristics
Sequence Stratigraphy Allostratigraphic Units unconformity-bounded
packages
Lithostratigraphic unit

• These are the bodies of strata divided a recognized

on the basis of lithology.
• Other physical visible criteria such as position in
sequence, sedimentary structure, geophysical
properties, unconformities, changes in lithology
which can seperate the unit physically from the
strata above or below may also be used to define
this units.
• The units recognized in this categories are-
Formation, Group, Member
Formation:
• It is the fundamental rock unit.
• It is a body of strata unified by certain lithology characteristics
which differs from adjacent strata and is traceable over a region
where a formation consists of a dominant rock type, the word
formation need not be used (e.g., Tipam Sandstone).
• But on absence of a dominant rock type, the geographic name will
be followed by unit name (e.g., Gaj formation).
Group:
These are assemblages of two or more continouse formation which
are associated by lithology or genetic features.
The term group is applied to thick sedimentary sequences which are
yet to be subdivided into separate formation (e.g., Surma group-
Bhuban & Bokabil formation).
Members:
• A member is a body of a strata commonly of certain lithology type
and these always a part of formation. It is recognized only when it
has specific lithologic character distinguishing it from the adjacent
portion of the formation.
Chronostratigraphic Unit
• Time rock units are the strata deposited during distinct time
units.
• The stratigraphic column of every area is differentiated into
successive time-rock unit according to the subdivision of time
represented by strata deposited and preserved.
• Time units and Time rock units are related each other.
• Period Epoch Age
• System Series Stage
Geochronologic Unit
• Time units are subdivision of geological time having
no relation with “disturbances or revolution” or their
effect on the sedimentary record.
• Units of geological time should not be considered
stratigraphic unit in strict sense because these are
not material bodies of strata.
• All time units were equally present and all places of
earth. Although no deposition or erosion may cause
certain units to be represents deposits where the
record of other time units are missing.
Biostratigraphic unit
• Biostratigraphy or paleontologic stratigraphy is based on
fossil evidence in the rock layers. Strata from widespread
locations containing the same fossil fauna and flora are
correlatable in time.
• Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle
of faunal succession, which predated, and was one of the
first and most powerful lines of evidence for, biological
evolution. It provides strong evidence for formation
(speciation) of and the extinction of species.
• The geologic time scale was developed during the 1800s
based on the evidence of biologic stratigraphy and faunal
succession. This timescale remained a relative scale until the
development of radiometric dating, which gave it and the
stratigraphy it was based on an absolute time framework,
leading to the development of chronostratigraphy.
• One important development is the Vail curve, which attempts
to define a global historical sea-level curve according to
inferences from world-wide stratigraphic patterns.
Stratigraphy is also commonly used to delineate the nature
and extent of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rocks, seals and
traps in petroleum geology.

• Ecostratigraphic unit- based on environment of deposition

• Seismostratigraphic unit- based on seismic signature
Magneto- stratigraphic unit-
• When measurable magnetic properties of rocks vary
stratigraphically they may be the bases for related but
different kinds of stratigraphic units known collectively as
"magnetostratigraphic units" ("magnetozones").
• The magnetic property most useful in stratigraphic work is
the change in the direction of the remanent magnetization of
the rocks, caused by reversals in the polarity of the Earth's
magnetic field. Such reversals of the polarity have taken place
many times during geologic history.
• They are recorded in the rocks because the rocks may record
the direction of the Earth's magnetic field at or near the time
of rock formation (see paleomagnetism).
• Magnetostratigraphy is a chronostratigraphic technique used
to date sedimentary and volcanic stratigraphic sections. The
method works by collecting oriented samples at measured
intervals throughout the section.
• Sequence Stratigraphy
• The analysis of stratigraphic successions in terms of
genetically related packages of strata, bounded by
discontinuities.
• “Genetically related strata” – different
environments, deposited contemporaneously
(“systems tracts”)
• “Bounding discontinuities” – 3 principal types of
surfaces (unconformities, flooding surfaces,
maximum flooding surfaces)
• Relate sequence development to interplay of 3 first-
order controls (global sea level, local tectonic
movements, sediment supply)
• Chemostratigraphy is based on the changes in the
relative proportions of trace elements and isotopes
within and between lithologic units. Carbon and
oxygen isotope ratios vary with time and are used to
map subtle changes in the paleoenvironment This has
led to the specialized field of isotopic stratigraphy.
• Cyclostratigraphy documents the often cyclic changes
in the relative proportions of minerals, particularly
carbonates, and fossil diversity with time, related to
changes in palaeoclimates.
• Stratigraphic Procedure:
• It is necessary to become familiar with a number of
operations and procedures used in the gathering and analysis
of stratigraphic data and materials.
• Out crop Procedures:
• Measured Sections-
• Accurately measured and properly described stratigraphic
sections form the basis for most studies of strata in outcrop.
• From measured sections, derived data are used in
correlations, as well as information of thickness and lithologic
variations, positions of faunas & floras and stratigraphic
relations of various rock units. The approach toward
completion of stratigraphic work in any outcrop study is
largely a function of the number of section measured, studied
and analysis.
Selection of section to be measured:-
• The proper choice of locations for section measuring is an
important factor in determining the value of the results and the
efficiency in procuring such results. In some areas, the choice is
limited by lacking of good exposures, whereas in areas of
numerous exposures, choice is made on the basis of spacing
between sections, amount of the stratigraphic column present,
degree of exposure or cover, structural simplicity and
accessibility.
• Spacing is important, since in the stratigraphic analysisi of any
area, it is necessary to get as wide a coverage as possible within
the time available for field work. Stratigraphic studies usually
involve either the entire stratigraphic column of an area, or
certain rock or time-stratigraphic units. In the first case, the
sections chosen should permit the measurement and study of as
much of the total column as possible. Furthermore, they should
begin and end with horizons that may be correlated with
adjacent sections in order that the column may be pieced
together.
• Where individual units, or groups of units, are involved, the
selected sections should expose the tops and bottoms of the
portion of the column concerned. Complex structures are
serious deterrents to acurate section measuring.

Description of measured section:

• The description os measure section should include
observations on the thickness of units, their stratigraphic
relationship, lithology, stratigrafication, internal structure,
weathering behaviour and paleontology.
Lithologic Samples:
• In addition to observations made in the field, modern
stratigraphic work requires a refinement of lithologic detail by
microscopic examination and laboratory treatment. For these
purposes, it is necessary to collect a sample from each subunit
in the measured section. some stratigraphers prefer to collect
samples within 5 or 10 ft intervals rather than within natural
subunits, since the regular intervals provide samples
comparable to those derived from drilling. This techniques is
very useful in stratigraphic studies involving the comparison of
surface and subsurface data.
Fossil Collecting:
• The time stratigraphic classification (time rock unit) of the rock
units in a measured section are most commonly determined by
paleontology , and every opportunity should be taken to refine
the biostratigraphic zoning of the stratigraohic column involved.
If microfossils are sought, adequate samples for later
examination must be collected in addition to the smaller
lithologic samples.
• Laboratory Analysis of outcrop sample:
• Textural Analysis- Grain size, shape, fabric etc analysis.
• Heavy mineral analysis
• Insoluble residue analysis
• Microscopic & Mineralogic Analysis:
• Presentation of outcrop data:
• Written description-
• A measured section is represented by a written description
which includes all the data gathered in the field and in the
laboratory for each subunit, as well as the results of
paleontologic investigation.
• Geological cross sections- conveniently illustrate both
stratigraphy and the relationship of stratigraphy to structure
and topography. It may be used to illustrate the position and
occurance of various stratigraphic unit within a mountain range
or sedimentary basin.
Columner section-

• Shows the sequence, interrelations and thickness of

stratigraphic units and illustrate their lithology by
conventional symbols. Aproperly organozed columner
section is capable of expressing practically all the
significant physical and biological data obtained from
measurement and analysis of a straitgraphic section.

Stratigraphic cross section-

• Stratigraphic cross section are drawn by arranging series

of columner section side by side in proper geographic
sequence. The particle scale is sometimes greatly
exaggerated in order to show stratigrphic detail.
Lithologic and faunal correlations are indicated by lines
connecting the proper horizons from column to column.
• Subsurface procedure:
• Cable-tool methods, Rotary method, Logging
• -well loggingis the record of subsurface
stratigraphic data in terms of depth:
• Electric logging
• Radioactivity logging
• Continuous velocity-sonic log
• Caliber log
• Drilling time log