Metal

Machining

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Objectives

• Introduce cutting terminology and principles

• Review modern machining technologies and new methods
(papers)
• Introduce cutting parameters
• Develop cutting models
• Analyze a cutting example

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Machining types
• Turning

• Drilling

• Milling

• Shaping

• Planing

• Broaching

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 Machining tools

• Single point

• Multiple point

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Machining tool materials

Most modern cutting tool materials are a matrix of

materials designed to be very hard. These materials will be
covered in the next chapter.

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Machining surface finish

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Machining terminology
Speed – surface cutting speed (v)
Feed – advance of tool through the part (f)
Depth of cut – depth of tool into part (d)

Rake face – tool’s leading edge

Rake angle – slant angle of tool’s
leading edge ()

Flank – following edge of cutting tool

Relief angle – angle of tool’s following edge above part surface

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Machining terminology (cont.)

ls

Chip thickness – thickness of machined chip (tc ) Orthogonal model

Depth of cut = to
Shear plane length – measured along shear plane chip (ls )
Chip width (not shown) – width of machined chip (w )
Shear angle – angle of shearing surface measured from tool direction ()
ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems
 Cutting conditions
Note: - Primary cutting due to speed
- Lateral motion of tool is feed
- Tool penetration is depth of cut
The three together form the material removal rate (MRR):
MRR = v f d
with units of (in/min)(in/rev)(in) = in3/min/rev (or vol/min-rev)

Types of cuts:
Roughing: feeds of 0.015 – 0.05 in/rev depths of 0.1 – 0.75 in

Finishing: feeds of 0.005 – 0.015 in/rev depths of 0.03 – 0.075 in

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Cutting geometry
Chip thickness ratio = r = to / tc Obviously, the
assumed failure
mode is shearing of
the work along the
From the shear plane geometry:
shear plane.
r = ls sin/[ls cos(-)]

which can be arranged to get

tan  = r cos /[1 – r sin]

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Cutting geometry
Note from the triangles in (c) that the shear strain () can be
estimated as

 = AC/BD = (DC + AD)/BD = tan(-) + cot 

Thus, if know
r and  can
determine ,
and given 
and , can
determine .

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Cutting forces
Since R = R’ = R’’, we can get the force balance equations:
F = Fc sin  + Ft cos  F = friction force; N = normal to chip force
N = Fc cos  - Ft sin Fc = cutting force; Ft = thrust force
Fs = Fc cos  - Ft sin  Fs = shear force; Fn = normal to shear plane force
Fn = Fc sin  + Ft cos  Forces are presented as function of
Fc and Ft because these can be
measured. Friction angle =
tan=  = F/N

Shear plane stress:

 = Fs/As

where
As = to w/sin
ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems
 Cutting forces given shear strength
Letting S = shear strength, we can derive the following
equations for the cutting and thrust forces*:

Fs = S As
Fc = Fs cos (cos ( 
Ft = Fs sin (cos ( 

* The other forces can be determined from the equations on the previous
slide.
ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems
 Merchant equations
Combining the equations from the
The previous
Merchant slides:
reln is a function of 
and . Where did these variables
 = (Fc cos  - Ft sin t ow/sin
come from? Merchant eqn

The most likely shear angle will minimize

Answer the energy. Applying
- Although the Merchant
d/d = 0 gives: eqn is not shown as a direct function
of  and , these enter from the
 = 45° +  Merchant reln
equations for Fc and Ft from the
What does the Merchant relation indicate?
previous slide!

If we increase the shear angle, we

- increase in friction angle decreases
decreaseshear
the toolangle
force and power
requirements!
- increase in rake angle increases shear angle
ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems
 Cutting models
The orthogonal model for turning approximates the complex
shearing process:
to = feed (f)
w = depth of cut (d)

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Cutting power
Power is force times speed:
P = Fc v (ft-lb/min)
The cutting horsepower is
hpc = Fc v/33,000 (hp)
The unit horsepower is
hpu = hpc/MRR units?
Due to efficiency losses (E about 90%), the gross hp is
hpg = hpc/E
ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems
 Cutting energy
Specific energy is
U = Fc v/(v tow) = Fc /(tow) (in-lb/in3)
The table shown contains power and specific energy ratings for several work materials
at a chip thickness of 0.01 in. For other chip thicknesses, apply the figure to get a
correction factor multiply U by correction factor for thickness different than 0.01”).

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Machining example
In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before
cut is to = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is tc = 0.045 in. The cutting
and thrust forces are measured at Fc = 350 lb and Ft = 285 lb while at a
cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear
stress, and cutting horsepower.
Solution (shear strain):
Determine r = 0.02/0.045 = 0.444
Determine shear plane angle from tan  = r cos /[1 – r sin]
tan  = 0.444 cos /[1 – 0.444 sin] =>  = 25.4°
Now calculate shear strain from  = tan(-) + cot 
 = tan(25.4 - 10) + cot 25.4 = 2.386 in/in answer!
ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems
 Machining example (cont.)
In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before
cut is to = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is tc = 0.045 in. The cutting
and thrust forces are measured at Fc = 350 lb and Ft = 285 lb while at a
cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear
stress, and cutting horsepower.
Solution (shear stress):
Determine shear force from Fs = Fc cos  - Ft sin 
Fs = 350 cos 25.4 - 285 sin 25.4 = 194 lb
Determine shear plane area from As = to w/sin
As = (0.02) (0.125)/sin= 0.00583 in2
The shear stress is
ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems
 Machining example (cont.)
In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness before
cut is to = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is tc = 0.045 in. The cutting
and thrust forces are measured at Fc = 350 lb and Ft = 285 lb while at a
cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine the machining shear strain, shear
stress, and cutting horsepower.

Solution (cutting horsepower):

Determine cutting hp from hpc = Fc v/33,000
hpc = (350) (200)/33,000 = 2.12 hp answer!

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Cutting temperatures
In machining 98% of the cutting energy is converted into heat. This
energy flows into the work part, chip, and tool. Cook determined an
experimental equation for predicting the temperature rise at the
tool-chip interface during machining:
Example in text calculates
T = 0.4 U (v to/K) /(c)
0.333
T = 936° total tool
where temperature, given v =
T = mean temperature rise (°F) 200 ft/min, c = 120 in-
U = specific energy (in-lb/in3) lb/(in3- °F) and K = 0.125
v = cutting speed (in/s) in2/s
to = chip thickness before cut (in)
c= volumetric specific heat of the work material (in-lb/(in3-°F))
K = thermal diffusivity of the work material (in2/s)
Note - To get total temperature at tool-chip interface, must add in ambient
ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems
 Cutters

Toroid

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Cutters

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems

 Machining

What did we learn?

ME 482 - Manufacturing Systems