Chapter2 Carbohydrates 1

Chapter 2
Carbohydrates –
Structure and
Function
Chapter 18
Table of Contents
18.1 Occurrence and Functions of

Carbohydrates 18.3 Classification of Carbohydrates
4.Classification of Monosaccharides
5.Biochemically Important Monosaccharides 18.6
Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides
18.7 Haworth Projection Formulas
18.8 Reactions of
Monosaccharides 18.9 Disaccharides
10.Oligosaccharides
11.General Characteristics of Polysaccharides 18.12
Storage Polysaccharides
13.Structural Polysaccharides
14. Acidic Polysaccharides
15. Dietary Considerations and Carbohydrates
16.Glycolipids and Glycoproteins: Cell Recognition 18.17
Unavailable Carbohydrates
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2

Section 18.2
Occurrence and Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates • storehouse of chemical energy

(glucose, starch, glycogen)
• The most abundant class of – a gram of digested
bioorganic molecules on earth carbohydrate gives about 4
• produced by the kcal of energy
photosynthetic activity of – complex carbohydrates are
the green plants best for diet
• also referred to as • supportive structural components
saccharides because of the in plants and some animals
(cellulose, chitin)
sweet taste of many
• form part of the structural
carbohydrates
framework of DNA & RNA
• (Latin, saccharum,
• carbohydrate “markers” on cell
meaning sugar) surfaces play key roles in cell-cell
recognition processes.

Section 18.3
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Simpler Formula: • Classification based on
– CnH2nOn or Cn(H2O)n products of acid
(hydrates of C) hydrolysis:
– n= number of atoms • Monosaccharides
– the simple sugars
• polyhydroxy aldehydes or – contain a single polyhydroxy
aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone
polyhydroxy ketones or unit
compounds that produce – cannot be degraded into simpler
such substances upon products by hydrolysis
hydrolysis. reactions
– pure monosaccharides are water-
soluble, white, crystalline solids
• Disaccharides
– contains 2 monosaccharide units
covalently bonded to each other
– crystalline and water soluble
substances
– upon hydrolysis they produce
monosaccharides

Section 18.3
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Oligosaccharides
– contains 2-10 monosaccharide – homopolysacchrides – polymers
units - covalently bonded of a single monosaccharide
– disaccharides are the most (glycogen, cellulose, starch)
common type – heteropolysaccharides – contain
– trisaccharides (raffinose) more than one kind of
monosaccharide (hyaluronic acid,
– tetrasaccharides
heparin, chondroitin sulfate)
(stachyose)
free oligosaccharides, other than
– disaccharides, are less common
• Derived carbohydrates
in nature – those where carbohydrate
– usually found associated with moieties have undergone some
proteins and lipids in complex reactions converting them into
molecules that serve structural other products
and regulatory functions – sugar acids, sugar alcohols,
deoxysugars, and sugar amines
• Polysaccharides
– consist of tens of thousands of
monosaccharide units covalently
bonded

Section 18.8
Classification of Monosaccharides
• carbohydrates that have

the general formula
CnH2nOn
– n varies from 3 – 8.
• grouped together according
to the number of carbons
they contain
– C3H 6O3 triose
– C4H8O4 tetrose
– C5H10O5 pentose
– C6H12O6 hexose
– C7H14O7
presence
-usually of a ketone
indicated group
by using theis
heptose ending “ ulose” in naming
– C8H16O8
• may either be: octose the sugar
– an aldose – contains aldehyde - e.g., levulose
group
– a ketose – contains ketone
group

Section 18.8
Exercise
Classify each of the following monosaccharides according
to both the number of carbon atoms and the type of
carbonyl group present.

Section 18.8
Exercise
Classify each of the following monosaccharides according
to both the number of carbon atoms and the type of
carbonyl group present.
Answers:
a. aldopentose; b.
ketohexose;
c. aldohexose; d.
ketopentose

Section 18.8
• Trioses • Pentoses
• the parent member of the • aldopentoses
family of monosaccharides
– D-(-)-
• from them emanates the lyxose
• a constituent of the heart
other members of the muscle
monosaccharide family. – D-(-)-
• the final form of carbohydrate ribose
• ribose and 2-deoxyribose –
into which all carbohydrates, present as intermediates in
metabolic pathways and are
regardless of their complexity, important building blocks
are degraded in the body of RNA and DNA
during carbohydrate • ketopentoses
metabolism.
– D-ribulose
• D(+)- glyceraldehyde
– D-xylulose
– an aldotriose
• Dihydroxyacetone
– a ketotriose

Section 18.8
• Hexoses • D-mannose
• the most common of all the – found in certain bacteria, fungi,
and plants
monosaccharides
– converted to usable glucose in the
• aldohexoses body, but has no real
– D-(+)-mannose physiological significance
– D-(+)-glucose
• A 5% (m/v) glucose solution
is often used in hospitals as
an intravenous source of
nourishment for patients who
cannot take food by mouth.
– D-(+)-galactose
• ketohexose
– D-(-)-fructose

Section 18.8
• Monosaccharides can be
classified based on their spatial
orientation (stereochemistry).
• A monosaccharide can be
classified as a D or L isomer,
depending on the spatial
orientation of the –H and –OH
groups attached to the
carbon atom adjacent to the
terminal primary alcohol
group.
• The D isomer is represented when
the –OH is written to the right of
this carbon in the Fischer
projection formula. The L isomer is
represented when this –OH is
written to the left.

Section 18.9
Biochemically Important Monosaccharides
Glucose and Fructose

1. Most abundant in nature
2. Nutritionally most important
3. Grape fruit good source of glucose
(20 - 30% by mass) -- also named
grape sugar, dextrose and blood
sugar (70 - 100 mg/100 mL of blood)
4. Six membered cyclic form
5. Ketohexose
6. Sweetest of all sugars; the fruit sugar
7. Found in many fruits and in honey
8. Good dietary sugar-- due to higher
sweetness
5. Five membered cyclic form

Section 18.9
Biochemically Important Monosaccharides
Galactose and Ribose

1. A component of milk sugar
2. Synthesized in human
3. Also called brain sugar-- part of brain
and nerve tissue
4. Used to differentiate between blood
types
5. Six membered cyclic form
6. Galactosemia
- a result of genetic deficiency in the infant – the gene responsible for
the enzyme that converts D-galactose to D-glucose. Such infants cannot
metabolize galactose and it builds up in the blood and tissue.
1. Part of RNA
2. Part of ATP
3. Part of DNA
4. Five membered cyclic form

Section 18.10
Hemiacetals and Hemiketals

• The dominant form of • Two types of ring structures are
monosaccharides with 5 or more possible:
C atoms is cyclic – five-membered ring, or furanose
ring, derived from parent compound
• Hemiacetals and hemiketals are furan
formed from the reaction between – six-membered ring, or pyranose ring,
two functional groups: aldehyde or derived from parent compound
ketone and alcohol pyran
– may take place either
intermolecularly or
intramolecularly as in the case of
sugars, provided there are
sufficient number of carbons
between the aldehyde or ketone
and the alcohol group to permit a
stable ring formation
– five- or six-membered hemiacetal
rings are stable

Section 18.10
Cyclic Hemiacetal Forms of D-Glucose
• In the cyclic hemiacetals of

glucose, C1*, is now a chiral
center (an anomeric
carbon)
– two anomers of D-glucose: -D-
glucose & -D-glucose
• The cyclic hemiacetals
are readily
interconvertible in
aqueous solution
– this intercoversion of - and -
anomers in solution is
accompanied by a change in
specific rotation called
MUTAROTATION.
– only sugars that form hemiacetal
or hemiketal structure mutarotate.
Section 18.10
• 2 anomeric forms of • Any —OH group at a chiral center

that is to the right in a Fischer
D- glucose:
projection formula points down in
– Alpha-form: -OH of C1 the Haworth projection formula
and CH2OH of C5 are on and any —OH group to the left in
opposite sides a Fischer projection formula points
– Beta-form: -OH of C1 and up in the Haworth projection
formula.
CH2OH of C5 are on same
sides 6
CH2OH
6
CH2OH
Anomeri
• Anomers: Cyclic O c O OH
5 Carbon 5
monosaccharides that differ 4 1 4
OH OH
only in the position of the OH
2 OH OH
2
1
3
substituents on the anomeric OH
3
OH
Anomeri
c
carbon atom. -D-Glucose
Carbon
-D-
Glucose

Section 18.10
• All aldoses with five or more • Fructose and other
carbon atoms establish similar ketoses with a sufficient
equilibria, but with different number of carbon atoms
percentages of the alpha, also cyclize
beta, and open-chain forms

Section 18.11
Haworth Projection Formulas
Practice Exercise
• Which of the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose,

and ribose has each of the following structural characteristics?
(There may be more than one correct answer for a given
characteristic)
a. It is a pentose.
b. It is a ketose.
c. Its cyclic form has a 6-membered ring.
d. Its cyclic form has two carbon atoms outside the ring.

Section 18.11
Haworth Projection Formulas
Practice Exercise
• Which of the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose,

and ribose has each of the following structural characteristics?
(There may be more than one correct answer for a given
characteristic)
a. It is a pentose.
b. It is a ketose.
c. Its cyclic form has a 6-membered ring.
d. Its cyclic form has two carbon atoms outside the ring.
Answers:
a. Ribose
b. Fructose
c. Glucose, galactose
d. Fructose
Section 18.12
Reactions of Monosaccharides
• Five important reactions of monosaccharides:

– Oxidation to acidic sugars
– Reduction to sugar alcohols
– Phosphate ester formation

– Amino sugar formation
– Glycoside formation
• These reactions will be considered with respect to
glucose; other aldoses, as well as ketoses, undergo
similar reactions.
Section 18.12
Oxidation
• Gives three different types of
acidic sugars depending on the
type of oxidizing agent used:
– Weak oxidizing agents like
Tollens and Benedict’s solutions
oxidize the aldehyde end to give
an aldonic acid.
– Strong oxidizing agents can
oxidize both ends of a
monosaccharide at the same time
to produce aldaric acid.
– In biochemical systems enzymes
can oxidize the primary alcohol
end of an aldose such as
glucose, without oxidation of the
aldehyde group, to produce an
alduronic acid.

Section 18.12
Reduction
• The carbonyl group in a
monosaccharide (either an
aldose or a ketose) is
reduced to a hydroxyl group
using hydrogen as the
reducing agent.
– product is the
corresponding
polyhydroxy alcohol,
sugar alcohol
– e.g., Sorbitol (glucitol) -
used as moisturizing
agents in foods and
cosmetics and as a
sweetening agent in
chewing gum
Section 18.12
Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides

Section 18.12
Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides

• Under prescribed conditions, • The Benedict, Barfoed, and
Fehling tests are based on the
some sugars reduce silver
formation of a brick red copper(I)
ions to free silver and oxide precipitate as a positive
copper(II) ions to copper(I) result while the Tollens test is
ions. Such sugars are called based on the formation of a silver
reducing sugars. mirror.
• A reducing sugar will have one
of the following groups. • The Barfoed test is more sensitive
• an aldehyde group (as in in that it can distinguish a reducing
glyceraldehyde) monosaccharide from a reducing
• a hydroxyketone (as in disaccharide.
fructose)
• a cyclic hemiacetal group (as in • The sugars are oxidized to
glucose and maltose)
carboxylic acids and the metal
ions are reduced

Section 18.12

Section 18.12
Reducing sugars
• Sugars with the hemiacetal • Many clinical tests that
structure can be reducing sugars monitor color change are
under alkaline conditions because based on the oxidation
the ring opens forming an
reaction shown here.
aldehyde group.

Section 18.12
Phosphate Ester Formation

• The hydroxyl groups of a
monosaccharide can
react with inorganic
oxyacids to form
inorganic esters.
• Phosphate esters of
various monosaccharides
are stable in aqueous
solution and play
important roles in the
metabolism of
carbohydrates.
Section 18.12
Amino Sugar Formation

• One of the hydroxyl groups of
a monosaccharide is
replaced with an amino
group
• In naturally occurring amino
sugars the carbon 2 hydroxyl
group is replaced by an
amino group
• Amino sugars and their N-
acetyl derivatives are important
building blocks of
polysaccharides such as chitin
and hyaluronic acid

Section 18.12
Glycoside Formation
• The cyclic forms of
monosaccharides, the
hemiacetals, react with
alcohols to form acetals
(also called glycosides)
• A glycoside is an acetal
formed from a cyclic
monosaccharide by
replacement of the
hemiacetal carbon —OH
group with an — OR group to
form a double ether
• A glycoside produced from
glucose - glucoside
• from galactose –
galactoside
Section 18.12
p622
Section 18.13
Disaccharides
• The two monosaccharides are • Condensation of the hydroxyl
linked together by acetal function of the hemiacetal
formation to form group of one monosaccharide
disaccharide with the hydroxyl group of
• One monosaccharide act as a another monosaccharide
hemiacetal and other as forms the bond, called a
alcohol and the resulting glycosidic bond, joining the 2
ether bond is a glycosidic saccharide units.
linkage.

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Maltose (reducing sugar)
– -1,4-glycosidic bond means that
• Malt sugar, found in corn syrup,
the first sugar is in -
malt, and germinating seeds configuration and its C#1 is linked
• consists of two molecules of to C#4 of the second sugar
glucose joined by -1,4-glycosidic component
bond – the second sugar may be either
an α- or a β-anomer.

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Maltose (reducing sugar)

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Cellobiose (reducing disaccharide)

• one of the major fragments • the 2 glucose units are joined
isolated after extensive by a -1,4-glycosidic linkage
hydrolysis of cellulose
• Maltose is digested easily

by humans because we
have enzymes that can
break α- (14) linkages but
not β- (14) linkages of
cellobiose
Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Lactose (reducing disaccharide)

• Lactose intolerance: a condition in
• Milk sugar which people lack the enzyme
– human - 7%–8% lactose lactase needed to hydrolyze
– cow’s milk - 4%–5% lactose lactose to galactose and glucose.
• consists of -galactose with a • Lactose intolerance is unpleasant,
-1,4-glycosidic linkage to - but its effects can be avoided by
glucose (or -glucose) a diet that rigorously excluded
milk and milk products.

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
• Galactosemia: the genetic disease
Lactose intolerance caused by the absence of the
vs Galactosemia enzymes needed for conversion of
galactose to glucose.
• When undigested, lactose attracts • A reduced form of galactose,
water causing fullness, discomfort, called dulcitol (galactitol), a toxic
cramping, nausea, and diarrhea. metabolite, is produced and
• Bacterial fermentation of lactose accumulates.
along the intestinal tract produces • If galactosemia is not treated, it
acid (lactic acid) and gas, adding leads to severe mental
to the discomfort. retardation, cataracts, and early
deaths

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Sucrose (nonreducing disaccharide)

• the common table sugar &
the most abundant of all
disaccharides found in plants.
• produced commercially
from the juice of sugar
cane and sugar beets.
• the -anomeric carbon 1 of
glucose joins the -anomeric
carbon 2 of fructose (-1,2-
glycosidic bond)

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Invert sugar
• Optical activities:
– Sucrose : +66.5
– Glucose : +53
– Fructose : -92
– Invert sugar : -39
• invert sugar has a much greater • Honeybees and many other
tendency to remain in solution. insects possess an enzyme called
• invertase that hydrolyzes sucrose
In the manufacture of jelly and
to invert sugar.
candy and in the canning of
fruit, crystallization of the sugar • Thus honey is predominantly a
is undesirable, therefore mixture of D-glucose and D-
conditions leading to the fructose with some unhydrolyzed
hydrolysis of sucrose are sucrose.
employed in these processes; in
addition, fructose is sweeter than
sucrose
Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Practice Exercise
• Which of these disaccharides, i.e., maltose, cellobiose, lactose,

and sucrose, have the following structural or reaction
characteristics? (There may be more than one correct answer for
a given characteristic)
a. Two different monosaccharide units are present.
b. Hydrolysis produces only monosaccharides.
c. Its glycosidic linkage is a “head-to-head” linkage.
d. It is not a reducing sugar.

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Practice Exercise
• Which of these disaccharides, i.e., maltose, cellobiose, lactose,

and sucrose, have the following structural or reaction
characteristics? (There may be more than one correct answer for
a given characteristic)
a. Two different monosaccharide units are present.
b. Hydrolysis produces only monosaccharides.
c. Its glycosidic linkage is a “head-to-head” linkage.
d. It is not a reducing sugar.
Answers:
a. Lactose, sucrose
b. Maltose, cellobiose, lactose, sucrose
c. Sucrose
d. Sucrose

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Artificial sweeteners

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Artificial sweeteners

Section 18.14
Oligosaccharides
• Commonly found in onions, cabbage, broccoli and wheat
• In humans, intestinal bacteria action on the undigestable
raffinose and stachyose present in beans produces gaseous
products that can cause discomfort and flatulence.

Section 18.14
Oligosaccharides
• Solanin - a potato toxin, is an oligosaccharide found in

association with an alkaloid
• bitter taste of potatoes is due to relatively higher levels of solanin.

Section 18.12
Antigens used in the ABO blood group classification

Section 18.15
General Characteristics of Polysaccharides
The Polymer Chain
• many monosaccharide
units bonded with
glycosidic linkages
• branched or
unbranched
• homopolysaccharide
or
heteropolysaccharides

Section 18.15
General Characteristics of Polysaccharides
• alternate name is glycan

• not sweet and don’t show • Homopolysaccharides
positive tests with Tollen’s and – starch
Benedict’s solutions – glycogen
• limited water solubility – cellulose
• Storage polysaccharides – chitin
– starch – carageenan
– glycogen • Heteropolysaccharides
• Structural polysaccharides – hyaluronic acid
– cellulose – heparin
– chitin
– chondroitin sulfate
• Acidic polysaccharides
– alginic acid
– heparin
– hyaluronic acid

Section 18.16
Starch
• the chief caloric distributor in the diet; the reserve carbohydrates for plants
• Amylose - straight chain polymer; 15 - 20% of the starch; water-soluble fraction; 60
– 300 glucose units joined by -1,4-glycosidic bonds
• experimental evidence indicates that the molecule is actually coiled like a spring and
is not a straight chain of glucose units.
• When coiled in this fashion the molecule has just enough room in its core to
accommodate an iodine molecule.
• The characteristic blue color that starch gives when treated with iodine is
due to the
formation of the amylose-I2 complex.

Section 18.16
Starch
• Amylopectin
– branched chain polymer
– 80 - 85 % of the starch
– the water-insoluble fraction
– composed of 300 –
6000 glucose units
joined primarily by -
1,4- glucosidic bonds
and occasionally by -
1,6- glucosidic bonds
– -1,6 bonds are
responsible for branching
which occurs about
once every 25-30 units.
Section 18.16
Glycogen
• the animal starch
• glucose storage molecule of
animals
• stored in granules in liver and
muscle cells
• like amylopectin, is a nonlinear
polymer of glucose units
joined by -1,4- and -1,6-
glycosidic bonds but has
lower molecular weight
• more highly branched
structure
• its branches are shorter
• gives red-brown color with I2
Section 18.17
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose • It serves as dietary fiber in food--

readily absorbs water and
• a fibrous carbohydrate found in all results in softer stools
plants where it serves as the • 20 - 35 g of dietary fiber is desired
structural component of the plant’s everyday
cell wall
• a linear polymer of glucose units
joined by -1,4-glucosidic
bonds
• linear nature of chains allows
close packing into fibers, making it
difficult for solvent molecules to
pull the chains apart, thus
cellulose is inert towards most
solvents
• Cotton ~95% cellulose and wood
~50% cellulose

Section 18.17
Cellulose
• yields D-glucose upon hydrolysis

yet man & the carnivorous animals
can’t utilize cellulose as a source
of glucose.
• human‘s digestive juices lack the
enzyme cellulase that hydrolyze -
1,4-glucosidic linkages.
• ruminants (cows, goats) and
termites have, within their
digestive tracts, microorganisms
that produce cellulase

Section 18.17
Chitin
• Similar to cellulose in both • itself is inert and practically
function and structure insoluble in most solvents. Its
• polymer of N-acetyl-D- derivative, chitosan, can be
glucosamine bound by β-1  4 prepared by simple alkali-
glycosidic linkages (has a linear catalyzed deacylation. Chitosan
extended structure like cellulose) derivatives are commercially used
• as films, fibers, surface coatings
Function is to give rigidity to the
and ultrafiltration membranes
exoskeletons of crabs,
lobsters, shrimp, insects, and
other arthropods

Section 18.17
• widely used in food industry
Carageenan • its gelling property is used in
enhancing the texture of various
• occurs as hydrocolloid extracted
dairy products and in
from selected species of red algae
preventing oiling off in caramel
• locally obtained from Eucheuma and toffee during hot weather
• striatum, Eucheuma spinosum • also serve as coating to retard
and Acanthapora moisture loss from foods and fresh
• sulphated polysaccharides, produce like fruits and vegetables
consisting of polymers of
sulphated D-galactopyranose
bonded through alternating α-
13 and β-14 glycosidic
linkages

Section 18.18
Acidic Polysaccharides
Hyaluronic acid • highly viscous - serve as
lubricants in the fluid of joints and
• repeating unit is a disaccharide part of vitreous humor of the eye
composed of -D-glucuronic acid
• when some insects sting, they
and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine in
inject an enzyme called
a
hyaluronidase, which breaks
-(13)-linkage.
hyaluronic acid linkages and
• each disaccharide is attached to facilitates the spread of the venom
the next by -(14)-linkage
• alternating -(13) and -(14)-
linkages

Section 18.18
Heparin Alginic acid
• locally extracted from Sargassum
• consists of repeating units of D- seaweeds
glucuronic acid and D-
• consist of repeating units of β-
glucosamine
14 bonded mannuronic and α-
• an anticoagulant in blood that 14 bonded L-guluronic acid; cell
inhibits blood clot formation wall material
• used in open-heart surgery • serves as base coatings in meats
and fish which reduces moisture
loss and fat absorption

Section 18.18
Chondroitin sulfate
• consists of repeating units of D-
glucuronic acid-D-glucosamine
sulfate
• structural role in cartilage, bone,
and cornea of the eye

Section 18.19
Dietary Considerations and Carbohydrates
Glycemic Foods
• A developing concern about intake of carbohydrates
involves how fast the given dietary carbohydrates are
broken down to glucose within the human body
• Glycemic index refers to:
– how quickly carbohydrates are digested
– how high blood glucose rises
– how quickly blood glucose levels return to normal
• Glycemic index (GI) has been developed for rating
foods
• Low-GI foods are desirable

Section 18.20
Glycolipids and Glycoproteins: Cell Recognition
• A glycolipid is a lipid molecule that has one or more

carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units
covalently bonded to it.
• A glycoprotein is a protein molecule that has one or

more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units
covalently bonded to it.
• Such carbohydrate complexes are very important in

cellular functions such as cell-cell recognition, cell
adhesion and cellular communication.

Section 18.19
• If absent fecal matter is hard, and has
Unavailable carbohydrates a long transit time.
• Long sojourn will dehydrate it and will
• those not hydrolyzed by digestive make it harder to remove.
enzymes
• It also increases the rate at which
• they constitute the dietary fiber digestive wastes move through the
• Fiber in the diet aids in the formation intestinal tract, which lessens the time
of bulk in the intestinal tract, which the intestine comes in contact with any
increases the absorption of water ingested carcinogens.
along the tract. • Some forms of diverticulitis
• Dietary fiber, as it reaches the gut, is (inflammation of the colon) have been
intact in structure where they form a relieved by increasing the quantity of
meshwork fiber in the diet.
• The meshwork has spaces where fecal • Straining at stool because of lack of
matter and water are trapped dietary fiber can lead to
• The effect is soft fecal matter which hemorrhoidsand nervous disorders.
can be easily removed.

Section 18.19
• There is also a correlation between
Dietary fiber ischaemic heart disease and gallstone
• Lack of dietary fiber may also lead to formation with the lack of dietary fiber.
overnutrition. • Cholesterol can be trapped in the
• When one does not masticate, the meshwork reducing the concentration
secretion of digestive hormones (such of blood cholesterol.
as gastrin and cholecystokinin) is not • With dietary fiber, bile will not be
induced. supersaturated with cholesterol.
• Without these hormones, it takes • In its absence, bile will be
longer to reach the feeling of satiety. supersaturated with cholesterol and
• Dietary fiber may also be beneficial in gallstone formation results.
weight maintenance. • When cholesterol is trapped plaque
• Fiber increases the bulk in the formation will be reduced.
stomach and intestines without • In the absence of dietary fiber, excess
contributing to the caloric intake. cholesterol can lead to plaque
formation leading to ischaemic heart
disorders.
• About 20-35 grams of dietary fiber
daily is a desirable intake.

Section 18.19

Chapter2 Carbohydrates 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter2 Carbohydrates 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 2

18.1 Occurrence and Functions of

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2

Carbohydrates • storehouse of chemical energy

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 3

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 4

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 5

• carbohydrates that have

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 6

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 7

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 8

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 10

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 11

Glucose and Fructose

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 12

Galactose and Ribose

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13

Hemiacetals and Hemiketals

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 14

• In the cyclic hemiacetals of

• 2 anomeric forms of • Any —OH group at a chiral center

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 18

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 19

• Which of the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose,

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 22

• Which of the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose,

• Five important reactions of monosaccharides:

– Phosphate ester formation

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 25

Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 27

Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 28

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 29

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 30

Phosphate Ester Formation

Amino Sugar Formation

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 32

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 35

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 36

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 37

Cellobiose (reducing disaccharide)

• Maltose is digested easily

Lactose (reducing disaccharide)

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 39

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 40

Sucrose (nonreducing disaccharide)

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 41

• Which of these disaccharides, i.e., maltose, cellobiose, lactose,

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 43

• Which of these disaccharides, i.e., maltose, cellobiose, lactose,

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 44

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 45

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 46

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 47

• Solanin - a potato toxin, is an oligosaccharide found in

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 48

Antigens used in the ABO blood group classification

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 49

The Polymer Chain

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 50

• alternate name is glycan