Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology (MENG 2021)

Hailemariam Kekeba (Dr)

2022
Definition of research
 Research: Re_ (again)+ search (find out something), Re search = find
out something again & again
Research :
 finding answers for questions not yet answered
 Arriving at dependable solution to a problem
 A careful systematic study and investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or principles
 A structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to
solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable
Definition of research …
 A systematic investigation to find answers to a problem
 A systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts,
events, behaviors, or theories, or to make practical applications with the help of
such facts, laws or theories.
 The term "research" is also used to describe the collection of information about a
particular subject, and is usually associated with the output of science and the
scientific method.
Characteristics of a good research
 Gathers knowledge or data (systematic and
accurate)
 Aims at discovering of principles
 Uses valid data gathering devices
 Uses logical and objective methods
 An unhurried activity
 Carefully recorded
Qualities of a good researcher
 Is sensitive to nature
 Is planned and systematic
 Is persistent to temptation (stick to data not on his/her
assumptions)
 Specializes in the field of the study
 Eliminates personal bias and feeling (lets data speak for itself)
 Strictly follows procedures set even if he/she comes up with
unpopular conclusions (objective to seek truth and facts)
 Has scientific outlook
 Is honest and devotee
Nature of research areas/field of study
 Has well defined contents, techniques and unique system of
values
 Constitutes cultural heritage and discipline
 Is related to some professional and social activities
 Has its methods of study
 Has its own language of communication
 Has impacts on the life of the scholar
 Has its own code of conduct
What to seek for in research
 Knowledge construction
 Testing the applicability of theories
 Solving practical problems

◦ Sources of knowledge
1. beliefs --- common senses
2. Authority--- supernatural power, elders,
government officials, etc.
3. Experiences---- personal , others’ errors, etc.
What to seek for…
4. Reasoning
deductive reasoning---from known to unknown, from
general to specific
inductive reasoning ----from specific to general integrative
reasoning---- both are used to construct knowledge
5. Scientific methods (the basis for research):
 Use of empirical evidences
 Hypothesis ---- experimentations ---conclusions----test/retest theory
 Observation---- inquiry
Steps in scientific methods
 Existence of difficult problems/obstacles
 Identification of difficulties
 Defining the difficulties in concrete terms as problem

statement/hypothesis
 Suggested solutions
 Experimentation of the suggested solutions (collection of

data, analysis, interpretation and evaluation, etc.)

 Verifying or rejecting the hypothesis
Steps for identifying research problems
 Choose a broad field in which you have deep interest
 Understand thoroughly the known facts and ideas in the field
 Steps:

1. Determine field of the research

2. Relate to your field of specialization
3. Review research conducted area to know the recent
trends and studies
4. Explore your prior knowledge of the field
5. Pinpoint specific aspects of the problem
Types of research
1. Theoretical/Basic/fundamental research
◦ Universal rules and principles/ knowledge
◦ Formulation of theories and refinement of human
knowledge
◦ Use of empirical data to test theories
◦ Discovery of knowledge
2. Applied research
◦ Test applicability of theoretical findings
◦ Use scientific methods to solve problems
Types of research
3. Practical/action/problem solving research:
 Uses theoretical description as the bases for practical use to
solve practical problems
 Eg. Developing teaching materials, presentation techniques, etc.
4. Evaluative research
 Formative and Summative;
 Informal and formal;
 .Cost benefit analysis;
 Outcome analysis;
 Impact assessment;
Types of research in terms of time:

 Longitudinal research (takes longer duration)

 Cross-sectional research (data collection at a time)
Approaches to research:

1. Survey
2. Case study
3. Experiment
 Fully experimental
 Quasi experimental
4. Exploratory study (a research used to investigate a problem
which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better
understanding of the existing problem , but will not provide
conclusive results)
5. Action research: acting again & again to find out something
worth knowing
Methods of research
1. Quantitative methods (statistical data, lab.
Experimental data)
2. Qualitative methods (subjective information,
non-quantifiable data)
3. Mixed methods (systematic integration of
both methods)
Criteria for selecting a research problem
1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication
2. Importance for the field research
3. Interest, intellectual curiosity
4. Training and qualification
5. Availability of literature, data,….
6. Special equipment and working conditions
7. Approachability of the samples
8. Sponsorship and cooperation
9. Hazards, penalties, and damages it might incur
10. Cost and return and
11. Time factors
Sources of research problems
1. Personal experiences: dynamism in social, environmental
technological issues
2. Inferences from theories:
◦ Application of principles to specific circumstances
◦ Translation of theories into practice
◦ Scientific texts for validity
3. Extensive study of available literature (research reports, etc.)
4. Technological and scientific developments (new innovations)
5. Consultations of superiors (seminars, public lectures,
speeches, etc.)
Formulation of a research problems
 Define the problem (specify it) (neither vague
nor broad scope)
 Express it in terms of questions
 Limit the scope of the investigation
 Identify theoretical bases
Evaluation of a research problem
1. Is the problem researchable?
2. Is the problem new? Original?
3. Is the problem significant?
4. Is the problem feasible for researching? (research
competence, interest, financial factors, time
requirements, administrative, etc.)
Research in civil engineering
1. Theoretical research
2. Applied research
3. Experimental research
4. Action research
5. Evaluative research
Proposal development
A blue print of a research project
 The purpose of a proposal is:
◦ to explain the need for the project, and
◦ to plan the project. Often this can help to
identify any potential problems you may have
in carrying out the work, and you can then
develop contingency plans.
Components of a proposal
1. title: the problem
2. Background to the study
3. Statement of the problem
4. Research questions/objectives
5. Objectives/research questions
6. Significance of the study
7. Basic literature review
8. Methods of the study
9. Time breakdown
10. Budget breakdown
11. References
Proposal development
 Group work
1. Apply the topic selection techniques discussed and write the
title of your research topic
2. Write the background to your study
3. Describe your study problem
4. Write 3 to 5 questions which you draw from the statement of
the problem which you will find answers to through the
research process
5. Explain why your study is significant to be studied
6. Develop your proposal in groups
Review literature and studies made so far in the
area
A literature review is an objective, critical summary of
published research literature relevant to a topic
under consideration for research.
 Its purpose is to create familiarity with current

thinking and research on a particular topic, and may

justify future research into a previously overlooked or
understudied area.
 a foundation for the investigation of a research paper
Research design
 The process of crafting methods of accessing reality
for the study
 Research methods
◦ Quantitative methods
◦ Qualitative methods
◦ Mixed methods
Research methods
Quantitative methods: Quantifiable data to be in quantitative terms
such as figures.
 Devices for data collection: questionnaires, experimental results

Qualitative methods: use of non-quantifiable data to explain study

issues
 Research instruments: interviews, focus group discussion,

observation, various documents, personal field notes, recorded

materials, photo etc.
Mixed methods: a systematic combination of the two methods
 Uses data collection tools from both methods
Data collection instruments
 For quantitative data: close ended questions, ranking
scales (Likert scales), experimental figure results
 For qualitative data: interviews, FGD, personal

account, reports, observation checklists,

photographs, etc.
 For mixed methods: close ended questionnaires with

open ended questions, statistical reports with

interviews, FGD, documents and observations
Study sites and participants
 Study site(s)
 Study subjects: persons, places, natural and manmade

phenomena, etc,
 Study population: total census of the study phenomenon/na
 Study size/sample: samples taken for the study from the total

population
 Study sampling strategies: techniques, procedures used to

select study sample/s

Sampling techniques
Quantitative: focuses on representation, more of is a survey
 Attempts to generalise to the total population
 Uses probability sampling methods (statistically significant)
 eg. Random, stratified, cluster, etc.

Qualitative: non-representational, an in-depth case study of

small sample
 Attempts to explain and generalisation only for the studied ones
 Purposive, availability, snow balling, etc.
Unit 2: Technical report writing
 It encompasses a wide variety of documents in science, engineering, and
the skilled trades.
 Technical writing is a direct, informative, clear, and concise language
written specifically for an identified audience.
 technical documents include reports such as research about technical
concepts as well as graphical depictions of designs and data.
 Technical reports include laboratory reports to instructors, annual
environmental reports to regulators, annual reports to shareholders,
design reports, project proposals, tender documents, journal articles and
so on.
 Technical report serves as a means of communicating the work to others
and possibly providing useful information about that work
Importance of writing reports
1. Bosses need reports (performance, progress reports,
phase based reports, outcome (end) reports, etc.)
2. Job accomplishment
3. A career advantages
4. Documentation saves information
5. Oral information is to be altered
6. Skill to win global business
7. An indicator of standard in the global world
Features of technical reports
 Focuses on a technical subject
 Aims to inform rather than to entertain
 has its own form and style (requirements)m formal
 The content must be accurate and complete with no

exaggerations
 requires facts or data (never hides facts)
 Non-emotive and impersonal
Target audience
 Evaluators (instructors, professors, bosses,
etc.)
 fellow students,
 engineering colleagues,
 customers seeking engineering services or

products
Categories of formal reports
1. Design reports: to introduce and document engineering and
scientific designs.
Major components: Summary, Introduction, Discussion,

Conclusions, and Appendices.

2. Laboratory reports (for experimentation, to inform users, etc.)
 Major parts: Abstract, Introduction, Procedures,
Results and Discussion, Conclusions, and Appendices.
3. Feasibility reports
 feasibility reports : discuss the practicality, and possibly the suitability
and compatibility of a given project, both in physical and economic terms
 Major components
1. Abstract or Summary
2. Contents list (including a separate list of illustrations)
3. Glossary
4. Introduction (purpose and scope)
5. Discussion (the main body providing the evidence – use appendixes if necessary)
6. Conclusions (flowing naturally from the discussion)
7. Recommendations (flowing naturally from the conclusions)
8. References (if necessary)
9. Appendixes (see section 6).
4. progress reports

 Periodic report describing how some activity or process is in progress

1. Introduction
◦ the period of work covered
◦ the work planned
◦ the authority for the work
◦ the progress to date
2. Main Body
◦ the work completed
◦ how the work has been completed
◦ Degree of progress

3. Conclusion
◦ an overall appraisal of the progress to date
◦ the work planned for the future
5. Research reports

a typical format for a research report:

1.Cover page
2.Title page
3.Contents page
4.Introduction
◦Set the scene; give a clear statement of the objectives and scope of the research
◦What was known about the subject at the beginning of the research?
◦Put the project into its proper context.
◦Give the reason(s) for the research.
◦Discuss the events which led up to it.
◦Assess the importance of other, related work.
5. Work carried out
◦Describe the overall shape and design of the research.
◦Describe the methods used (for example, sampling methods).
◦Describe the actual work carried out, probably in chronological order.
◦Explain how the results were analyzed (for example, input to a computer).
Research reports
6. The Results
In an academic report, give full results (with an interpretation in a
separate section).
◦ In a non-academic report, you can omit some results (or at least
put them in an appendix) and emphasize significant results.
◦ Concentrate on each objective of the research in turn.
◦ Structure your results around these objectives.
◦ Discuss the results; form links; build up an overall picture.
◦ Distinguish ‘facts’ from interpretations, inferences, predictions
or deductions.
Research reports
7. Conclusions
◦ Make sure they flow naturally from the results.
◦ Each one must be supported by your findings and/or other research.
◦ If no clear picture has emerged, then say so.
◦ Do not see relationships that do not exist.
8. Recommendations
◦ These should flow naturally from your conclusions, with no surprises.
9. Appendixes
◦ Include items which would disturb the flow of the report (for example,
survey forms and questionnaires).
Unit3. COMPONENTS OF A FORMAL REPORT
 Front matters
◦ Cover
◦ Title
◦ Contents
◦ List of tables and figures
◦ Summary/executive summary
 Main body
◦ Introduction (background, statement of the problem, research questions/objectives, significance of the
study, scope and limitations)
◦ Literature review (theory )
◦ Research methods (experimental procedures)
◦ Analysis (results and discussions ) and
◦ Conclusion (summary, conclusion and recommendation)
Back matters
 References
 Appendices
Format of a formal report
 The outline for a general full-length engineering report contains
the following items:
1. Title
2. Summary or Abstract (Executive Summary)
3. Introduction
4. Theory and Analysis
5. Experimental Procedures
6. Results and Discussions
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
8. Acknowledgments
9. Literature Cited
10. Appendix
Summary/executive summary/abstract
 Summary: descriptive summaries and informative summaries
◦ A descriptive summary: what kind of information is in the report; it is a table of contents in paragraph
form.
◦ informative summary: a synopsis of the text portion of the report
 Abstract: An "abstract" usually refers to a summary written to a technical audience, and
depending on its length can be either descriptive, informative, or a combination of both
 An "executive summary “

◦ refers to an informative summary written to a management audience and includes the most important
results and conclusions of the document.
◦ Because it is written to a management audience, it includes enough background for the manager to
understand those results and conclusions
◦ Components of an executive summary
 The overall purpose of the experiment or principal objectives
 The problem studied
 Experimental methods and materials used.
 Main results and Main conclusions
Introduction
 Set the scene; give a clear statement of the
objectives and scope of the research
 What was known about the subject at the beginning

of the research?
 Put the project into its proper context.
 Give the reason(s) for the research.
 Discuss the events which led up to it.
 Assess the significance of other, related work.
Theoretical analysis
 Theory explains the technical background of the
work. It usually includes the mathematical equations,
models, and formulae, as well as the “What was
discovered?”
 Scientific relations in its final forms, which governs

the work, referenced to its original sources.

 Any equations or models should be formatted and

numbered according to the standards followed in

technical writing.
Experimentation procedure
◦ Describes and explains the steps and process of the
experiment in detail in chronological order.
 Describe the overall shape and design of the research.
 Describe the methods used (for example, sampling
methods).
 Describe the actual work carried out, probably in
chronological order.
 Explain how the results were analyzed (for example,
input to a computer).
Results and discussion

◦ In an academic report, give full results (with an

interpretation in a separate section).
◦ In a non-academic report, you can omit some
results (or at least put them in an appendix) and
emphasize significant results.
◦ Concentrate on each objective of the research in
turn.
◦ Structure your results around these objectives.
◦ Discuss the results; form links; build up an
overall picture.
Results and discussion
 It should answer:
◦ What do the results clearly indicate?
◦ What is the significance of the results?
◦ Are the results fully discussed and conclusions
drawn based on the knowledge gained?
◦ How did errors occur?
◦ Did any of the errors affect the conclusion of the
experiment/study?
Conclusion and recommendations
Conclusion: The conclusion section analyzes for the most important results from the
discussion and evaluates those results in the context of the entire work. The
conclusion:
◦ Make sure they flow naturally from the results.
◦ Each one must be supported by your findings and/or other research.
◦ If no clear picture has emerged, then say so.
◦ Do not see relationships that do not exist.
 Must answer any questions raised in the introduction regarding what was
shown, discovered, verified, proved, or disproved.
 Must explain why the experiment is significant.
 Must explain the implications for your particular field of study
 It should not include discussion of new information not already mentioned
in the report
Recommendations
Recommendations:
 These should flow naturally from your
conclusions, with no surprises.
 They should tested and proved prescriptions
References
 Reference page(s): list of alphabetically organised
sources cited in the report and presented
immediately after the report .
 Bibliography: all available sources alphabetically

organised including both the cited ones as well

other sources read during the research and listed
after the report.
Citation techniques
 The most common citation styles are the following:
1. MLA (Modern Language Associastions) style in the humanities (e.g. literature or
languages).
◦ MLA uses parenthetical citations containing the author and page number.
In-text citation The book uses success stories from the authors’ own lived experiences to make the
case for a creative revolution in the business world (Stewart and Simmons 22)
Reference list entry: Stewart, Dave and Mark Simmons. The Business Playground: Where Creativity and
Commerce Collide. New Rider Press, 2010.
2. APA (American Psychology Association) style in the social sciences (e.g. psychology
or education).
 APA’s citation style uses an author-date system of parenthetical citation.
In-text citation The book uses success stories from the authors’ own lived experiences to make the
case for a creative revolution in the business world (Stewart & Simmons, 2010, p. 22).
Reference list entry: Stewart, D., & Simmons, M. (2010). The business playground: Where creativity
and commerce collide. New Riders Press.
3. Chicago author-date in the other sciences.
In-text citation The book uses success stories from the authors’ own lived experiences to
make the case for a creative revolution in the business world (Stewart and Simmons 2010,
22).
Reference list entry: Stewart, Dave and Mark Simmons. 2010. The Business Playground:
Where Creativity and Commerce Collide. Berkeley: New Riders Press.
4. Harvard referencing style is often used in the field of economics. There is no
official style guide, which means there are a few variations.
In-text citation: Eg. The book uses success stories from the authors’ own lived
experiences to make the case for a creative revolution in the business world
(Stewart and Simmons, 2010, p. 22).
Reference list entry: Stewart, D. and Simmons, M. (2010) The business
playground: Where creativity and commerce collide.  Berkeley: New Riders Press.
Style of technical report
Style:Technical documents present data, facts,
calculations, test results, and theories, and
these must be presented in an objective, fact-
based accurate manner that is not opinionated
UNIT FOUR: PRINCIPLES AND LANGUAGE OF
TECHNICAL WRITING
 Some Technical Writing Principles
A. Conciseness: complete and unambiguous.
B. Clarity: Technical writing should be unambiguous so the
audience knows exactly what the writer intends .
Ambiguity can happen when you do not specify what you are
writing about and can even depend how you use words like ‘it’,
‘this’, ‘thing’, ‘way’, ‘some’ ,etc.
C. Correctness: Check that the spelling, punctuation and grammar
of your sentences are correct. Use computer spell checkers with
care and make sure that you know which word to select.
Pronouns, Voice, Tense, Adverbs and Adjectives

A. The Pronoun ‘I’

 There are various considerations for using or not using ‘I’ in

technical and scientific writing.

 Reasons for using ‘I’ include:
 The more practiced a writer is, the more latitude the writer

can have in being casual or creative.

 If a writer is Nobel laureates, an accomplished

engineer/scientist/professional, then as an ‘expert’ in their

field the writer can use ‘I’ to give authority to their ideas
B. The Use of Voice

In the past, it has been customary to write reports in passive

voice in recognition of the fact that the writer's relationship to
the material he/she is presenting is a purely objective one, a
practice which is still adhered to in the preparation of material
for the more conservative technical publications.
But, nowadays, there is a growing trend to use active voice, at
least occasionally, where it may be effective to do so, as in
emphasizing an especially pertinent point or in avoiding the
awkwardness of a weak passive.
C. Tense
 The procedural, narrative part of the report, including the calculations,
should be written in past tense, because the writer is giving an account of
what he/she did or has done.
 The present tense is to be used only for expounding theory and principles
involved, for stating known fact, and for explaining figures and diagrams.
 For example, it is okay to use the present tense when stating an enduring
truth like “Current passing through a resistor causes it to heat up.”
 The use of tense implies different meaning:
◦ Past tense: A break in the circuit interrupted the current.
◦ Perfect tense: A break in the circuit had interrupted the current.
◦ Present tense: Current passing through a resistor causes it to heat up
D. Adverbs and Adjectives

State clear facts precisely and avoid flowery language.

For the most part, eliminate adverbs and adjectives
that intervene with the meaning.
a. The wind was blowing fiercely and the air outside
was growing chilled. (Literary sentence)
b. Onshore winds travelling at 45km per hour brought
temperatures down to 15 degrees Celsius. (Scientific
sentence)
Abbreviations and Acronyms

 The first time you use an abbreviation or acronym, you must

spell out the full term followed by the abbreviation or
acronym in brackets. Subsequent use of the term is then
made by its abbreviation or acronym.
 Equations and Formulae
 Each equation is to be placed on a line by itself. Equations

that will be referred to in the text of the report should be

numbered, with the numbers flush with the right margin. This
number is used for identification throughout the rest of the
text.
Figures and Tables

 Allfigures and tables should be numbered and

labeled.
 Figures include diagrams, graphs, sketches,

photographs and maps.

 Tables represent data in columns.
 This caption is placed above a table and below a

figure. Each should have a very simple, descriptive

caption explaining the figure or table.
 Mechanics
 Period, commas, semicolon, colone, question marks,