Lecture 6: The Bernoulli Equation

In the previous lecture we saw the different types

of fluid flow, steamlines and streamtubes, and how
mass and momentum are conserved.

We also know that energy cannot be created or

destroyed, but can be converted from one form to
another.

The Bernoulli equation is a statement of the

principle of conservation of energy along a
Streamline.
Objectives of this lecture are therefore to:

 Reinforce the notion of conservation of

energy as it relates to fluids in motion
Derive the Bernoulli equation and identify its
limitations
Demonstrate how the Bernoulli equation is
applied to predict and estimate flow variables

Show different examples of the application of

the Bernoulli equation
Energy and Work
Energy cannot be created or destroyed – but can be
changed from one form to another.

Consider a droplet of water falling from a height

through a distance h.

In this case, if friction is ignored, then:

Sum of Kinetic Energy and gravitational
Potential Energy is constant.
That is, K.E + P.E = Constant (1)
 We know that K.E = and
where m=mass, v=velocity, h=height above datum

At initial point: K.E=0 and P.E=

At final point: K.E = and P.E = 0
For anywhere in between, Sum = K.E + P.E
It will be seen from the above that at the final state,
all potential energy has been converted into kinetic
energy.
That is, =

So, final velocity (2)

A similar method as above can be applied to
a continuous jet of liquid.
In the figure, an element of fluid
with mass m with a velocity u1
drops from height z1 to z2 where
the velocity is u2.
The Trajectory of a jet of water

m = constant, so g = (3)
Equation (3) will give reasonably accurate results
as long as the weight of the jet is large compared
to friction forces.

It is only applicable while the jet is whole – that

is, - before it breaks up into droplets.

We can use a very similar application of the

energy conservation concept to determine the
velocity of flow along a pipe from a reservoir.
Flow from a reservoir

Consider the 'idealised reservoir' in the figure

below. The height of the level of the water is
and the pipe outlet is
. With the outlet
pipe closed, at the
top K.E = 0 and
P.E = mg.
When the outlet pipe is opened, a mass m of
water flows from the top to , outlet velocity
being . Here K.E = and P.E = mg.
Summarising:

Initial kinetic energy  = 0

Initial potential energy  =
Final kinetic energy  =
Final potential energy  = mg
Since K.E + P.E = constant, we get:

= + mg or (- )=

So, (4)
Example:
A reservoir of water has the surface at 310 m above the outlet
nozzle of a pipe with diameter 15 mm. What is (a) the velocity at
outlet, (b) the discharge out of the nozzle and (c) the mass flow
rate? (Neglect all friction in the nozzle and the pipe).

Solution:
= = 78.0 m/s

Volume flow rate = area of the nozzle multiplied by the velocity

Hence,

Mass flow rate = ρQ = 1000x0.01378 = 13.78 kg/s

In the above example the resultant pressure force
is zero as the pressure surrounding the fluid is the
same everywhere – namely atmospheric.

Had the pressure been different, there would have

been an extra force acting, and we would have
had to take into account the effect of this force
when calculating the final velocity.

We have already seen in the hydrostatics section

an example of pressure difference where the
velocities are zero.
Consider a pipe which is filled with a stationary
fluid of density ρ which has pressures p1 and p2 at
levels z1 and z2 respectively.
The pressure difference in
terms of these levels will be:

p2 - p1 = ρg(z1 - z2 )

Or z1 = z 2 (5)

Equation (5) applies when the pressure varies but

the fluid is stationary.
The similarities between equations (3) and (5)
should be evident.
If both pressure and velocity varies, both have to
appear in the equation. In this case we have:
z1 = z2

Dividing by g throughout we get:

z1 = z2 (6)

Equation (6) is known as the Bernoulli Equation

Restrictions of the Bernoulli Equation

There are restrictions in the applicability of the

Bernoulli equation, namely:
1. The flow is steady
2. The fluid is incompressible (ρ=constant)
3. Friction losses are negligible
4. The equation relates the states at two points
along a single streamline, (not conditions on
two different streamlines)
All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at
any instant in time!
Fortunately for many real situations where the
conditions are approximately satisfied, the
equation gives very good results.
In a real pipeline there are energy losses due to
friction, and these must be taken into account as
they can be quite significant. In this case Eq. (6)
becomes:
z1 = z2 f (7)

where f represents head loss due to friction

Summing all the energies we get:

Pressure Kinetic Potential Total

energy per + energy per + energy per = energy per
unit weight unit weight unit weight unit weight

Or =H (8)

Since energy in the system is conserved, the

total head does not change. Assuming no friction
losses, the Bernoulli equation can be written as:
= H = constant (9)
As all of these elements of the equation
have units of length, they are often referred
to as head, as follows:
Pressure head =  
Velocity head =  
Potential head =   z
Total head =  H
As stated earlier, the Bernoulli equation applies
to conditions along a streamline.
We can apply it between two points, 1 and 2, on
a streamline, e.g. in the figure below.
In the figure,

Total energy per Total energy per

unit weight at 1 unit weight at 2

That is: Total head at 1 = Total head at 2

Or z1 = z2 (10)

The above equation assumes no energy losses

(e.g. from friction) or energy gains (e.g. from a
pump) along the streamline.
It can be expanded to include these, simply by
adding the appropriate energy terms:

Total energy Total energy Loss Work done Energy

per unit = per unit + per unit + per unit – supplied per
weight at 1 weight at 2 weight weight unit weight

z1 z2 (11)
where = head lost to friction
= work done by the fluid
= heat transfer to the fluid
APPLICATIONS OF THE STEADY FLOW ENERGY
EQUATION
where
• ∆pinput and ∆pout refer to the pressure rise experienced
across a fan, or pump, and the pressure drop across a
turbine, respectively.
• The pressure loss experienced as a result of friction
and separation of the flow from the walls of the
conduit is encapsulated in the ∆pF+S term and will be
shown to be defined by a term of the form 1/2ρKu2,
where u is the local flow velocity and K is a constant
dependent upon the conduit parameters, i.e. length,
diameter, roughness or fitting type.
Flow between two reservoirs open to atmosphere
Energy changes in a fluid system
Practical use of the Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation is often combined with

the continuity equation to find velocities and
pressures at points in the flow connected by a
streamline.

What follows is an example of using the

Bernoulli equation to determine pressures and
velocities within a contracting and expanding
pipe.
 Example:

A fluid of constant density = 960 kg/ is flowing steadily

through a horizontal tube as shown above. The diameters
at the sections 1 and 2 are 100 mm and 80 mm,
respectively. The gauge pressure at 1 is 200 kN/ and the
velocity here is 5 m/s. We want to know the gauge
pressure at section 2.
Solution:
We apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline joining section
1 with section 2.
z1 = z2

The tube is horizontal hence z1 = z2

So the Bernoulli equation becomes:

We do not know the value of u2 , but we can calculate it from the
continuity equation, Discharge In = Discharge Out
That is: or 7.8125 m/s

Now we can calculate the pressure at section 2.

= 182 kN/
 Application of the Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation is applicable to many

situations - not just the pipe flow.

Here we will see its application to flow

measurement from tanks, within pipes, etc.
1. The Pitot Tube
The Pitot tube is a simple but very important
velocity measuring device. Uniform velocity flow
hitting a solid blunt body has streamlines as shown.
Some move to the left and
some to the right.
The centre one hits the
blunt body and stops.
At this centre (point 2) velocity is zero, and the
fluid does not move at this one point. It is known
as the stagnation point.
Using the Bernoulli equation, we can calculate the
pressure at this stagnation point (point 2).

Along the central streamline at 1 the velocity is u1

and the pressure is p1, while at the stagnation point
the velocity u2 = 0.

Also if the system is horizontal, z1 = z2.

Then, from z1 = z2 we get:

or
This increase in pressure which bring the fluid to
rest is called the dynamic pressure.
Therefore, Dynamic pressure =
Or converting this to head (using h = )
Dynamic pressure =
The total pressure is know as the stagnation
pressure (or total pressure)
Stagnation pressure =
Or in terms of head
Stagnation head = (12)
The blunt body stopping the fluid does not have
to be a solid. It could be a static column of fluid.

Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a

Pitot tube within the pipe can be used in an
arrangement shown below to measure velocity
of flow.

A Piezometer and a Pitot tube

Using the Bernoulli equation, we have the
equation for p2 

Hence, (13)

Also, since and

(14)
We now have expressions for velocity obtained
from two pressure measurements and the
application of the Bernoulli equation.
 The Pitot Static Tube
The necessity of two piezometers and thus two
readings make the above arrangement awkward.
The Pitot-Static tube combines the tubes and they
can then be easily connected to a manometer.
3. The Venturi Meter
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring
discharge in a pipe. It is a rapidly converging section
which increases the velocity of flow and hence
reduces the pressure.
It then returns to the original dimensions of the
pipe by a gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section.
By measuring the pressure differences the
discharge can be calculated. This is a particularly
accurate method of flow measurement as energy
losses are very small.
Drawing of a venturi meter is shown below.
Applying the Bernoulli equation along the streamline from point 1 to point
2 in the narrow throat of the Venturi meter we have:

z1 = z2

By using the continuity equation, we can

eliminate the velocity u2.

Therefore
Substituting the above into the Bernoulli
equation and rearranging we get:

Hence:
To get the theoretical (ideal) discharge this is
multiplied by the area
Re-arranging you can also see that:

Or
Actual discharge takes into account the losses
due to friction, so we include a coefficient of
discharge, Cd (usually, but not always, Cd ≈ 0.9)

Therefore,

and
(16)
Eq (16) can also be expressed in terms of the
manometer readings.

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of

the manometer reading as:
(17)
Note that equation (17) does not include any
terms for the elevation or orientation (z1 or z2) of
the Venturi meter.

This means that the meter can be at any

convenient angle to function.

Care must be taken in Venturi Meter design to

ensure that readings are reasonably accurate.
 Venturi Meter Design
 The diffuser assures a gradual and steady deceleration
after the throat. This ensures that pressure rises to
something near that before the meter.
 The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8
degrees. If it is wider the flow may separate from the
walls increasing energy loss.
 If the angle is less than 6o the meter becomes very long
and pressure losses again become significant.
 The efficiency of the diffuser for increasing pressure
back to the original is rarely greater than 80%.
 Care must be taken when connecting the manometer
so that no burrs are present.
4. Flow through a small orifice
Consider the flow from a tank through a hole in the
side close to the base as shown below.

The shape of the hole edges are sharp to minimise

frictional losses by minimising the contact between
the hole and the liquid - the only contact is the very
edge.
The streamlines contract after the orifice to a
minimum value where they all become parallel.

At this point, the velocity and pressure are

uniform across the jet.

This convergence is called the vena contracta.

It is necessary to know the amount of

contraction to allow us to calculate the flow.
We can predict the velocity at the orifice using
the Bernoulli equation.

We apply it along the streamline joining point 1

on the surface to point 2 at the centre of the
orifice.
At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and
the pressure is atmospheric (p1 = 0).

At the orifice the jet is open to the air so again

the pressure is atmospheric (p2 = 0).
If we take the datum line through the orifice
then z1 = h  and  z2 =0, leaving

or
This theoretical value of velocity is an over-
estimate as friction losses have not been taken
into account.
A coefficient of velocity is used to correct the
theoretical velocity.
(18)
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity
(they usually lie in the range 0.97 - 0.99)
The discharge through the orifice is:

Q = Jet area x Jet velocity

The area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta,
not the area of the orifice.

We obtain this area by using a coefficient of

contraction for the orifice, .

That is,
 The discharge through the orifice is given by
Q=Au

Therefore,

(19)
where Cd is the coefficient of discharge,
and Cd = Cc C v
5. Time for a Tank to Empty
We now have an expression for the discharge out
of a tank based on the height of water above the
orifice.
It would be useful to know how long it would take
for the tank to empty.
As the tank empties, so the level of water will fall.
We can get an expression for the time it takes to
fall by integrating the expression for flow
between the initial and final levels.
The tank has a cross sectional area of A. In a time
dt the level falls by dh. The flow out of the tank is:
Q=Au=
(-ve sign as δh is falling)

Rearranging and substituting the expression

for Q through the orifice gives
This can be integrated between the initial level, h1,
and final level, h2, to give an expression for the time
it takes to fall this distance.

Or t (20)
 IMPORTANT NOTE:

The Bernoulli Equation is very important in

the study of Fluid Mechanics.

You are expected to know how to derive the

Bernoulli Equation from first principles as
applied to different fluid flow systems
including Venturi Meters, Notches and
Weirs.