TIMBER CONSTRUCTION

Timber is not only one of the oldest construction materials, along with stone, earth
and various materials, but has remained until today the most versatile.
Timber is an extremely complex material, available in a great variety of species and
forms, suitable for all kinds of applications. This diversity of timber products and
applications requires a good knowledge of the respective properties and limitations as
well as skill and experience in order to derive maximum benefits from timber usage.
CLASSIFICATION OF TREES
trees are classified into two general classes,
 hardwoods and
softwoods.
Hardwoods:- normal deciduous which have broad leaves that are shed at the end of
each growing season
- heavy base that scarcely narrow but divides into branches to form a wide,
round crown.
Softwoods are coniferous trees and the timber is not necessarily 'soft'. They are
'evergreen'. Softwoods have needlelike leaves that normally remain green year round.
-Straight, round but slender, narrow stem.
-The crown is narrow and rises to a point.
  Hardwood Softwood  

• Broad leafed trees • Coniferous trees (needle-like leaves)

• Heavy • Light in weight
• Dark colored • Light colored
• Do not show distinct annual ring • Show distinct annual ring
• Generally stronger • Weak, liable to split easily
• Beautiful grained • Uninteresting grain
• Thicker cell walls, close cell structure • Thin cell walls, open cell structure
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER FRAME STRUCTURE
1.Strength properties:-They include material behavior related to compression, tension, shear,
bending, torsion, and shock resistance.
-Wood has the strongest structural strength in compression perpendicular to the grain and in tension parallel
to the grain. The tensile strength parallel to the grain can be thirty times as high as perpendicular to it, while
for compressive strength the ratio is of the order of six to one.
2.Durability:-Timber is fairly durable and can be very durable if treated correctly. Because timber
is targeted by some insects like termites, it should be treated regularly and could be very
expensive and time consuming.
3.Fire resistance:-Wood is a very flammable material and is a safety risk. The proper safety
precautions should be taken to avoid any safety risks for example fire escape routes etc. should be
planned before construction of a building.
ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND REMEDIES OF TIMBER FRAMED
STRUCTURES
Advantages
 Availability and Acceptability
 Physical and aesthetic qualities
 Timber has a high strength to weight ratio making it an attractive framing material. Some
species are highly resistant to rot, corrosion and marine damage.
 Timber is very durable and there are numerous finishes available to protect and enhance the
natural beauty of the material. These sealants and protective finishes promote its durability .
 If well protected and well installed, timber can last for centuries with minimum
maintenance.
Disadvantages

o Extreme hardness of some dried timbers making sawing difficult and requiring special
saws.
o Thermal and moisture movement (perpendicular to the grain) causing
distortions, shrinkage and splitting.
o Susceptibility of cheaper, more abundantly available timber species to fungal decay
and insect attack.
o Fire risk of timber members and timber products with smaller dimensions.
o High toxicity of the most effective and widely recommended chemical preservatives,
which represent serious health hazards over long periods.
o Failure of joints between timber members due to shrinkage or corrosion of
metal connectors.
o Discoloration of surface due to exposure to sunlight, wind-borne abrasives or
chemicals.
Remedies

 Sawing of hard timber species when still green, since the moisture in the fresh logs
lubricates the saw. 
 Reduction of moisture content to less than 20 % by seasoning, in order to prevent
fungal growth.
 Harvesting timber in the dry or winter season, when the moisture content which attracts wood-
destroying insects is lowest. 
 Chemical treatment of timber against fungi, insects and fire should only be done with full
knowledge of the ingredient substances,
 Indoor and outdoor uses of timber should be differentiated according to durability and degree of
toxicity
TIMBER BASED MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION
1. Structural Timber: These are timber elements which form part of the structural system of the
building. They are for the load bearing wall frames, floor systems, columns, beams and roof
trusses.
2. Non-Structural Timber: These are timber elements which are non-load bearing, they are used for
internal walls and partitions, windows, doors and finishes.
TYPES AND APPLICATION OF TIMBER FRAME PRODUCTS
Based on their manufacturing and processing ways, there are various types of timber frame
structures, some of the common timber frames are: structural solid timber, fiberboard,
laminated construction board and boards/Planks.
Timber structural frame construction
This is the predominant method for building single- and multifamily dwellings. For wood framing,
the walls are conventionally built with studs spaced 16 or 24 in c to c. Similarly, joists and rafters,
which are supported on the walls and partitions, are also usually spaced 16 or 24 in c to c. Facings,
such as panel sheathing, wall- board, decking, floor underlayment, and roof sheathing, are
generally available in appropriate sizes for attachment to studs, joists, and rafters with these
spacing.
• Two types of wood-frame construction are generally used: platform frame and
plank-and-beam frame
Platform Frame
• In this type of construction, first-floor joists are completely covered with subflooring
to form a platform on which exterior walls and interior partitions are built.. This is the
type of framing usually used for single-family dwellings .
Plank-and-Beam Frame
• In contrast to conventional framing, which utilizes joists, rafters, and studs spaced 12
to 24 in c to c, plank-and-beam frames require fewer but larger-size piers, and wood
components are spaced farther apart .
• In plank-and-beam framing, subfloors or roofs, typically composed of members with
a nominal thickness of 2 in, are supported on beams spaced 8 ft c to c. Ends of the
beams are supported on posts or concrete piers.
• Supplemental framing is used between posts for attachment of exterior and interior
wall framing and finishes. It also provides lateral support or bracing for the structure.
• If well-planned, construction labor savings can be achieved. Larger and fewer
framing members requires less handling and fewer mechanical fasteners.
• Elimination of cross bracing, which is often required in platform and balloon
framing.
Platform framing for two-story building
PERMANENT WOOD FOUNDATIONS
• Main components of a wood foundation wall are plywood, 5⁄8 in or more thick,
and wood studs, spaced 12 in or more on centers, both pressure-treated with
preservative .
• Some advantages of a wood foundation over concrete are faster construction,
because there is no delay due to the wait for concrete or unit masonry to cure,
easier interior finishing, because wood foundations provide nail able studs for the
usual finishes, the ability to erect the system in virtually any weather, and generally
drier basements due to the use of gravel backfill, which facilitates drainage of
water away from the foundation. Wood basements also are much warmer and
more comfortable for the occupant in cold weather.
• Treatment for the plywood and lumber involves impregnating into the wood
under heat and pressure ammoniacal copper arsenate or chromated copper
arsenate. After pressure treat- ment, plywood should be dried to a moisture
content of 18% or less, and lumber, to 19% or less.
Wood foundation on a concrete footing.
• To minimize end cutting and field treatment of footing plates, these members may
be extended past the corners of the foundation. Only corrosion-resistant fasteners
should be used in wood foundations.
• To keep the interior of the foundation walls dry, it is necessary to enclose the
exterior with a waterproofing membrane, such as polyethylene film, and to ensure
good drainage.
POST FRAME AND POLE CONSTRUCTION
-Wood poles and posts are used for various types of construction, including flag-
poles, utility poles, and framing for buildings. These employ preservativelly treated
round poles or posts with square or rectangular cross sections that are set into the
ground as columns.
-Post frame construction is used extensively in agricultural buildings and in many
commercial and industrial building applications.
-In buildings with post frame and pole construction,a bracing system is often
provided at the top of the poles or posts to reduce bending moments at the base
and to distribute loads. Design of buildings supported by poles or posts without
bracing requires good knowledge of soil conditions, to eliminate excessive
deflection or sideway. For allowable foundation and lateral pressures, see the
applicable building code.
- Bearing values under the base of the vertical load-carrying elements should be checked. For
backfilling the holes, well-tamped native soil, sand, or gravel may be satisfactory, but concrete
or soil cement is more effective.
DESIGN FOR FIRE SAFETY
For buildings with structural lumber or timber framing, fire protection of the occupants and of
the property itself can be enhanced by taking advantage of
- the fire-endurance properties of wood in large cross sections
-selecting details that make buildings fire-safe
- Building materials or features alone or detection
-fire- extinguishing equipment
The most important protection factors for occupants, fire fighters, and the property, as well as
adjacent exposed property, are
- prompt detection of the fire
- immediate alarm
-extinguishment of the fire
With member size of particular importance of fire endurance of wood, building codes classify
buildings with wood framing as heavy-timber construction, ordinary construction, or wood-
frame construction.
Heavy-timber construction is the type in which fire resistance is attained by placing
requirements on the minimum size, thickness, or composition of all load- carrying wood
members; by avoidance of concealed spaces under floors and roofs; by use of approved
connections, construction details, and adhesives; and by providing the required degree of
fire resistance in exterior and interior walls.
• Ordinary construction has exterior masonry walls and wood-framing members of sizes
smaller than heavy-timber sizes.
• Wood-frame construction has wood-framed walls and structural framing of sizes
smaller than heavy-timber sizes.
TIMBER FABRICATION AND ERECTION
• During fabrication and erection processes for wood construction, wood products should be
handled and covered to prevent marring of the surfaces and moisture absorption.
Overstressing of members and joints during handling and erection should be avoided.
Competent inspectors should check materials and workmanship.
Fabrication of Structural Timber
- Fabrication consists of boring, cutting, sawing, trimming, dapping, routing, planning, and
otherwise shaping, framing, and finishing wood units, sawn or laminated, including panels,
to fit them for particular places in a final structure.
-Jigs, patterns, templates, stops, or other suitable means should be used for all complicated
and multiple assemblies to ensure accuracy, uniformity, and control of all dimensions.
Specific jobs, however, may require closer tolerances.
Location of Fastenings. Spacing and location of all fastenings within a joint should be
in accordance with the shop drawings and specifications, with a maxi- mum permissible
tolerance of 1⁄16 in.
Bolt-Hole Sizes. Bolt holes in all fabricated structural timber, when loaded as a structural joint,
should be 1⁄16 in larger in diameter than bolt diameter for 1⁄2-in and larger-diameter bolts,
and 1⁄32 in larger for smaller-diameter bolts.
Holes and Grooves. Holes for stress-carrying bolts, connector grooves, and connector daps
must be smooth and true within 1⁄16 in per 12 in of depth.
Lengths. Members should be cut within 1⁄16 in of the indicated dimension when they are
up to 20 ft long.
End Cuts. Unless otherwise specified, all trimmed square ends should be square within 1⁄16
in per foot of depth and width.
Timber Erection 
• Erection of timber framing requires experienced crews and adequate lifting equipment
to protect life and property and to assure that the framing is properly assembled and
not damaged during handling.
• Each shipment of timber should be checked for tally and evidence of damage. Before
erection starts, plan dimensions should be verified in the field.
Stud wall construction
When the main structural members of walls are installed vertically at close spacing, the
members are called studs and the walls are referred to as stud walls.
Load-bearing and non-load-bearing stud walls may be built of wood, aluminum, or cold-
formed steel. Basic framing consists of vertical structural members, or studs, seated on a
bottom, horizontal, bearing member, called a sole plate, and capped with a horizontal
tie, called a top plate
Seasoning / Drying
• The process of drying timber to remove the bound moisture contained in wall cells
in order to produce seasoned timber. 
• Lumber is considered seasoned when moisture content is less than 15 - 19%.
Purpose of seasoning  
• Improved strength, reduce shrinkage 
• Greater resistance to decay
 • Reduced weight; easily handled & transported
• Paints applied will last longer
Methods of seasoning
Air dry (traditional method) Lumber is stacked. Air circulate through & around the
stacks. Takes months to reach moisture content 20 %  
Dried in kiln  The lumber is stacked as in air dry & placed in a special chamber. Takes
days to one week. Most commonly used.
Surfacing The surface of lumber is machined to give smooth surface and a more
precise dimension, easier to work with & less damaging to hands. 
Grading  All sawn timber are graded based on quality e.g. appearance and
structural strength.