NUTRITION BASICS:

MICRONUTRIENTS
Presented By
Mokoena N.W

1
 Vitamins
 The term vitamin came to describe a group of essential
micronutrients that generally satisfy the following criteria:
a) Organic compounds (or class of compounds) distinct
from fats, carbohydrates, and proteins
b) Natural components of foods; usually present in minute
amounts
c) Not synthesized by the body in amounts adequate to
meet normal physiologic needs
d) Essential, also usually in minute amounts, for normal
physiologic function (i.e. maintenance, growth,
development and reproduction)
e) Cause a specific deficiency syndrome by their absence
or insufficiency
2
 Vitamins
 Vitamers are the multiple forms (all isomers and
active analogs) of vitamins.
 Although the vitamins have few close chemical

similarities, their metabolic functions have

classically been described in one of four general
categories
1. Membrane stabilizers
2. Hydrogen and electron donators and acceptors
3. Hormones
4. Coenzymes

3
 Vitamins
 The vitamins can be classified based on their solubilities:
The fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and the water
soluble vitamins (C, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, Biotin, folate,
cobalamin)
 The fat soluble vitamins are absorbed passively and must
be transported with dietary lipid
 They tend to be found in the lipid portions of the cell such
as membranes and lipid droplets
 The water soluble vitamins are absorbed by passive and
active mechanisms, transported by carriers, and not
stored in appreciable amounts in the body
 Fat soluble vitamins are generally excreted with faeces via
enterohepatic circulation, whereas water soluble vitamins
or their metabolites are excreted in the urine 4
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (1)
VITAMIN A (RETINOL)
 Vitamin A is the generic term used to describe all

retinoids having the biologic activity of all-trans

retinol.
 Vitamin A, a light yellow crystalline alcohol, has

been named retinol in reference to its specific

function in the retina of the eye.
 The yellow-orange-red provitamin carotenoids,

which the body converts to vitamin A with varying

degrees of efficiency, are described in terms of
beta-carotene, the most active
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Absorption, Transport and Storage
 Before either vitamin A or its carotenoid
provitamins can be absorbed, proteases in the
stomach and small intestine must hydrolyze
proteins that are usually complexed with these
compounds
 In addition, retinyl esters must be hydrolyzed in

the small intestine by lipases to retinol and free

fatty acids
 The liver plays an important role in vitamin A

transport and storage

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FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (2)
FUNCTIONS
 It occupies essential roles in vision, growth, bone

development, the development and maintenance

of epithelial tissue, the immunological process,
and normal reproduction
 It is a component of the visual pigments, and as

such is essential to the integrity of

photoreception in the retina’s rods and cones
 It is necessary for growth and development of

skeletal and soft tissues through its effect on

protein synthesis and bone cell differentiation
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FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (3)
FOOD SOURCES
 Liver
 Sweet potato
 Carrots
 Spinach
 Squash, butternut
 Dark green, leafy, and yellow-orange vegetables

and fruit

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FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (4)
DEFICIENCIES
 Night Blindness (Nyctalopia) – impairment of dark

adaptation; the ability to adapt from a bright light

or glare to darkness, as encountered in night
driving or entering a dark room from a brightly
lighted one, is symptomatic of vitamin A deficiency
 Xerophthalmia – One of the serious eye conditions

caused by vitamin A deficiency, is more common in

developing countries

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Toxicity
 Persistent, large doses of vitamin A (more than 100
times the required amount) overcome the capacity
of the liver to store the vitamin and can produce
intoxication and eventually lead to liver disease
 Hypervitaminosis A in humans is characterized by

changes in the skin and mucous membranes

 Dry lips (chelitis) are a common initial sign,

followed by dryness of the nasal mucosa and eyes.

 More advanced signs include dryness, erythema,

scaling and peeling of the skin, hair loss, and nail

fragility
 Retinoids can be toxic to embryos exposed in the

womb (teratogenicity) 10
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (5)
VITAMIN D (CALCIFEROL)
 Vitamin D is known as the “sunshine vitamin” because

modest exposure to sunlight should be sufficient for

most people to produce their own vitamin D using
ultraviolet light and cholesterol in the skin.
 Because the vitamin can be produced in the body, has

specific target tissues, and does not have to be

supplied in the diet, it better meets the definition of a
hormone rather than a vitamin and usually acts as a
steroid hormone.
 Two sterols-one in the lipids of animals (7-
dehydrocholesterol) and one in plants (ergosterol)-
can serve as precursors of vitamin D. 11
 Each of these can undergo photolytic ring opening
when exposed to ultraviolet irradiation
 Ring opening of 7-dehydrocholesterol yields a

provitamin form of 7-dehydrocholesterol, which

yields cholecalciferol, or vitamin D3
 Ergosterol ring opening yields ergocalciferol, or

vitamin D2
 Vitamins D2 and D3 require further metabolism to

yield the metabolically active form of 1,25-

dihydroxyvitamin D (Calciferol)

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Absorption, Transport and Storage
 Dietary vitamin D is incorporated with other lipids
into micelles and absorbed with lipids into the
intestine by passive diffusion
 Inside the absorptive cells the vitamin is
incorporated into chylomicrons, enters the
lymphatic system, and subsequently enters the
plasma, where it is delivered to the liver by
chylomicron remnants or to the specific carrier
vitamin D binding protein (DBP)
 Vitamin D synthesized in the skin from cholesterol

enters the capillary system and is transported by

DBP.
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FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (6)
FUNCTIONS
 Its major actions involve interaction with cell membrane

receptors and nuclear vitamin D receptor proteins to

affect gene transcription in a wide variety of tissues
 The most well understood functions of vitamin D are in

the maintenance of calcium and phosphorus

homeostasis.
 Calcitriol plays important roles in cell differentiation,

proliferation, and growth in the skin, muscles, pancreas,

nerves, parathyroid gland, and immune system.
 It influences the onset of conditions as diverse as

multiple sclerosis, cardiovascular disease, proteinuria

and diabetic nephropathy 14
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (7)
SOURCES
 Vitamin D exists naturally in animal products, and

the richest sources are fish liver oils.

 Salmon
 Mackerel
 Tuna fish
 Fortified margarine
 Fortified dairy products

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FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (8)
DEFICIENCIES
 Vitamin D deficiency manifests as rickets in children and

osteomalacia in adults
 Rickets – it is a disease involving impaired mineralization of

growing bones. It is a result not only of deprivation of vitamin

D, but of deficiencies of calcium and phosphorus
 Osteomalacia – develops in adults whose epiphyseal closures

make that portion of the bone resistant to vitamin D deficiency.

Therefore the disease involves generalized reductions in bone
density and the presence of pseudofractures, especially of the
spine, femur, and humerus
 Osteoporosis – it is frequently confused with osteomalacia;

however, it is a very different bone disease, one that involves

diminished bone mass but the retention of a normal histologic
appearance 16
Toxicity
 Excessive vitamin D intake can produce
intoxication characterized by elevated serum
calcium (hypercalcaemia) and phosphorus
(hyperphosphatemia) levels and ultimately the
calcification of soft tissues (calcinosis), including
the kidneys, lungs, heart, etc.
 Patients often complain of headache and nausea
 Hypervitaminosis D is a progressive intoxication,

and individuals seem to vary in their susceptibility

to the conditions

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FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (9)
VITAMIN E
 Vitamin E has a fundamental role in protecting the

body against the damaging effects of reactive

oxygen species that are formed metabolically or
encountered in the environment
 It includes two classes of biologically active

substances: (1) the tocopherols and (2) the related

but less biologically active compounds, the
tocotrienols.

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Absorption, Transport, and Storage
 Vitamin E is absorbed in the upper small intestine
by micelle-dependent diffusion, and, like the other
fat-soluble vitamins, its use depends on the
presence of dietary fat and adequate biliary and
pancreatic function.
 The esterified forms of vitamin E found in

supplements (which are more stable) can only be

absorbed after hydrolysis by esterases at the
duodenal mucosa

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FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (10)
FUNCTIONS
 Vitamin E is the most important lipid-soluble
antioxidant in the cell
 Located in the lipid portion of cell membranes, it

protects unsaturated phospholipids of the membrane

from oxidative degradation from highly reactive
oxygen species and other free radicals
 As a membrane free radical scavenger, vitamin E is an

important component of the cellular antioxidant

defence system
 This antioxidant function suggests that vitamin E and

related nutrients may collectively be important in

protecting the body against and treating conditions
related to oxidative stress 20
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (11)
SOURCES
 Peanuts
 Avocado
 Spinach
 Whole grain cereals
 Almonds
 Mixed nuts
 Sunflower oil
 Olive oil
 Peanut oil
 Canola oil
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FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (12)
DEFICIENCIES
 In general, the targets of deficiency are the

neuromuscular, vascular, and reproductive

systems.
 Vitamin E deficiency, which may take 5 to 10 years

to develop, manifests with loss of deep tendon

reflexes, impaired vibratory and position sensation,
and visual disturbances
 At the cellular level, a deficiency of vitamin E is

accompanied by an increase in lipid peroxidation

of the cell membrane
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Toxicity
 It is one of the least toxic of the vitamins.
 Humans and animals seem to be able to tolerate

relatively high intakes – at least 100 times the

nutritional requirements

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Vitamin K
 In addition to playing a role in blood clotting,
scientists now know that vitamin K plays a role in
bone formation and regulation of multiple enzyme
systems
 Naturally occurring forms of vitamin K are the

phylloquinones, which are synthesized by green

plants, and the menaquinones, which are
synthesized by bacteria

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Functions
 Vitamin K is essential for the posttranslational
carboxylation of glutamic acid residues in proteins
to form carboxyglutamate (GLA), the residues bind
calcium
 Four plasma-clotting GLA proteins have been

identified, including thrombin, which is necessary

for the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin in blood
clottingil
 It may also play a role in the regulation of multiple

enzymes involved in sphingolipid metabolism in

the brain as well as other enzyme systems

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Sources
 It is found in large amounts in green leafy
vegetables, especially broccoli, cabbage and dark
lettuces
 Its amounts in dairy products, meats, and eggs

tend to vary
 Breastmilk tends to be low in this vitamin and does

not provide enough for infants less than 6 months

of age

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The Water Soluble Vitamins
 Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, pantothenic
acid, biotin, folic acid, cobalamin, and vitamin C
are referred to as the water-soluble vitamins.
 Solubility in water is one of the only characteristics

that they share

 Because they are water soluble, these vitamins tend

to be absorbed by simple diffusion when ingested

in large amounts and by carrier-mediated
processes when ingested in smaller amounts
 Most are not stored in appreciable amounts,

making their regular consumption a necessity

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Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
 It plays essential roles in carbohydrate metabolism
and neural function.
 The vitamin must be activated by phosphorylation

into thiamin triphosphate (TTP), or cocarboxylase,

which serves as a coenzyme in energy metabolism
and the synthesis of pentoses
 Thiamin’s role in neural function is unclear, but it

probably does not act as a coenzyme

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Absorption, Transport and Storage
 It is absorbed from the proximal small intestine by
active transport (in low doses) and passive
diffusion (in high doses)
 Active transport is inhibited by alcohol
consumption, which interferes with transport of
the vitamin, and by folate deficiency, which
interferes with the replication of enterocytes

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Functions
 The functional form of thiamin is TPP, which is a
coenzyme for several dehydrogenase enzyme
complexes essential in the metabolism of pyruvate
and other α-keto acids.
 Thiamin is essential for the oxidative
decarboxylation of α-keto acids, including the
oxidative conversion of pyruvate to acetyl
coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), which enters the Krebs
cycle to generate energy
 TPP also serves as the coenzyme for transketolase,

which catalyzes 2-carbon fragment exchange

reactions in the oxidation of glucose by hexose
monophosphate shunt 30
Sources
 Thiamin is widely distributed in many foods, most
of which contain only low concentrations
 The richest sources are yeasts and liver; however,

cereal grains comprise the most important source

of the vitamin in most human diets
 Although whole grains are typically rich in thiamin,

most of it is removed during milling and refining

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Deficiencies
 Thiamin deficiency is characterized by anorexia and
weight loss, as well as cardiac and neurologic signs
 In humans thiamin deficiency eventually results in
beriberi, the symptoms of which include mental
confusion, muscular wasting, oedema, peripheral
neuropathy, tachycardia, and cardiomegaly
 Wet beriberi (with oedema), dry beriberi (without
oedema.
 The nonoedematous form of the disease is usually
associated with energy deprivation and inactivity,
whereas the wet form is usually associated with a
high carbohydrate intake along with strenuous
physical exertion 32
Toxicity
 Little information exists about the toxic potential
of thiamin, although massive doses (1000 times
greater than nutritional needs) of the commercial
form, thiamin hydrochloride, have suppressed the
respiratory centre

33
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
 It is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates,
amino acids, and lipids and supports antioxidant
protection
 It carries out these functions as the coenzymes

flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and flavin

adenine mononucleotide (FMN)
 Because of its fundamental roles in metabolism,

riboflavin deficiencies are first evident in tissues

that have rapid cellular turnover such as the skin
and epithelia

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Functions
 FMN is required for the conversion of pyridoxine to
its functional form, pyridoxical phosphate
 FAD required for the biosynthesis of the vitamin

niacin from the amino acid tryptophan

 In other cellular roles, mechanisms dependent on

riboflavin and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

phosphate seem to combat oxidative damage to
the cell
 It could be playing a role in the improvement of

cataracts

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Sources
 Liver
 Fortified ready to eat cereal
 Milk
 Green leafy vegetables
 Pork
 Chicken
 Yoghurt

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Deficiencies
 Riboflavin deficiency becomes manifest after several
months of deprivation of the vitamin
 The initial symptoms include photophobia; tearing;

burning and itching of the eyes; loss of visual acuity;

and soreness and burning of lips, mouth and tongue
 More advanced symptoms include fissuring of the lips

and cracks in the skin at the corners of the mouth

 It has been implicated in cataract formation when

multiple vitamin deficiencies are present

 Otherwise riboflavin deficiencies usually occur in

combination with deficiencies of other water-soluble

vitamins such as thiamin and niacin in those who are
malnourished
37
Toxicity
 Riboflavin is not known to be toxic; high oral doses
are considered essentially nontoxic
 However, high doses are not beneficial

38
Niacin (Vitamin B3)
 Niacin is the generic term for nicotinamide and
nicotinic acid.
 It functions as a component of pyridine nucleotide

coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

(NAD) and NADPH, which are essential in all cells
for energy production and metabolism
 It was identified as a result of the search for cause

and cure of pellagra

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Functions
 The coenzymes NAD and NADPH are the most
central electron carriers of cells, playing essential
roles as cosubstrates of more than 200 enzymes
involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fatty
acids, and amino acids
 The NAD dependent reactions are involved in

intracellular respiration
 NADPH, on the other hand, is important for

biosynthetic (fatty acid, sterol) pathways

 Because of its fundamental role in metabolism,

niacin may play an important role in mechanisms

for DNA repair and gene stability and, therefore
influence cancer risk 40
Sources
 Ready to eat cereals
 Chicken
 Tuna
 Peanuts
 Yeasts
 Beef
 Rice

41
Deficiencies
 Niacin deficiency begins with muscular weakness,
anorexia, indigestion, and skin eruptions.
 Severe deficiency of niacin leads to pellagra, which is
characterized by dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhoea (the
three Ds), tremors and a beefy red, sore tongue.
 The dermatologic changes are usually the most prominent
 Skin that has been exposed to the sun develops cracked,
pigmented, scaly dermatitis.
 Central nervous system involvement symptoms include
confusion, disorientation, and neuritis
 Digestive abnormalities cause irritation and inflammation
of the mucous membranes of the mouth and the GI tract
 Untreated pellagra can cause death (which is often referred
to as “the fourth D”)
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Toxicity
 In general, niacin toxicity is low
 However, high doses of 1 to 2g of niacin three

times per day – dosages that have been used in

attempts to lower blood cholesterol concentrations
– can have side effects
 The main side effect is histamine release that

causes flushing and may be harmful to those with

asthma or peptic ulcer disease
 High doses of niacin can also be toxic to the liver

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Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)
 It is widely distributed in foods and cases of
clinical deficiency are rare
 It has critical roles in metabolism
 It is an integral part of Coenzyme A, which is

essential in energy production from the

macronutrients, and acyl-carrier protein (ACP),
which is used in synthesis reactions

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Functions
 It is the compound in the first steps of the
synthesis of fatty acids or cholesterol or in the
acetylation of alcohols, amines, and amino acids
 It also activates fatty acids before their
incorporation into triglycerides and acts as an acyl
donor for proteins
 ACP is a component of the multienzyme complex

fatty acid synthase, which is necessary for fatty

acid synthesis

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Sources
 It is present in all plant and animal tissues
 The most important sources in mixed diets are

meats (particularly liver and heart); but

mushrooms, avocados, broccoli, egg yolk, yeast,
skim milk, and sweet potatoes are also good
sources of the vitamin
 It is fairly stable during ordinary cooking and

storage, although the vitamin can be lost in frozen

meats during thawing
 Because it is localized in the outer layers of grains,

about half of the vitamin is lost in the milling of

flour
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Deficiency
 Pantothenic acid deficiency results in impairments
in lipid synthesis and energy production
 Because the vitamin is so widely distributed in

foods, deficiencies are rare.

 However, pantothenic acid deficiency has been

observed among severely malnourished humans.

 Symptoms include paresthesia in the toes and

soles of the feet, burning sensations in the feet,

depression, fatigue, insomnia, and weakness

47
Toxicity
 The toxicity of pantothenic acid is negligible; no
adverse effects after ingestion of large doses of the
vitamin have been reported in any species
 Massive doses administered to humans have

produced only mild intestinal distress and

diarrhoea

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Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
 The biologically active analogs of vitamin B6 are the
aldehyde pyridoxal (PL) and the amine
pyridoxamine (PM).
 They exhibit the biologic activity of pyridoxine

(PN), which is the alcohol derivative

 All three compounds are converted to the
metabolically active coenzyme form pyridoxal
phosphate (PLP), which is primarily involved in the
metabolism of amino acids

49
Functions
 Vitamin B6 functions in the form of PLP, a coenzyme for
numerous enzymes involved in practically all reactions in
the metabolism of amino acids and in several aspects of
the metabolism of neurotransmitters, glycogen,
sphingolipids, heme, and steroids
 It is needed for the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitters
serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and others
 It is needed for the biosynthesis of the vasodilator and
gastric secretagogue histamine
 It is also required for the metabolic conversion of
tryptophan to niacin, the release of glucose from
glycogen, the biosynthesis of sphingolipids in the myelin
sheaths of nerve cells, and the modulation of steroid
hormone receptors
50
Sources
 It is widely distributed in foods, occurring in
greatest concentrations in meats, whole grain
products (especially wheat), vegetables, and nuts
 Much of the vitamin B in many foods is bound
6
covalently to proteins or glycosylated, the
indigestibility of which result in much of the
vitamin B6 content of foods having relatively low
bioavailability

51
Deficiency
 Deprivation of vitamin B6 leads to metabolic
abnormalities resulting from insufficient
production of PLP.
 These manifest clinically as dermatologic and

neurologic changes in most species

 Impaired cell mediated immunity
 Peripheral neuropathies
 Stomatitis – the inflammation of the mucous

membrane of the mouth

 Cheilosis – a disorder of the lips marked by scaling

and fissures at the corners of the mouth

 Glossitis – inflammation of the tongue
52
Toxicity
 The toxicity of the vitamin seems to be relatively
low, although high dosages (several grams per day)
have produced sensory neuropathy marked by
changes in gait and peripheral sensation
 Many of the signs of vitamin B toxicity resemble
6
those of vitamin B5 deficiency

53
Folate (Folic Acid)
Functions
 Folic acid functions as an enzyme cosubstrate in many

synthesis reactions in the metabolism of amino acids and

nucleotides by donating or accepting single carbon units
 It functions in the de novo synthesis and repair of DNA by

transferring formate for purine synthesis and formaldehyde

for thymidylate synthesis
 It is required for the conversion of histidine to glutamic

acid.
 It provides labile methyl groups for the synthesis of

methionine from homocysteine

 Folate is essential for the formation of red and white blood

cells in the bone marrow and their maturation

 In its role in the synthesis and repair of DNA, both folate

and B12 have pivotal roles in maintaining gene stability 54

Sources
 Fortified dry cereal
 Black-eyed peas
 Lentils
 Beans
 Liver
 Green leafy vegetables (especially spinach,
asparagus, and broccoli)
 Potatoes
 Whole-wheat bread
 Orange juice
 Mushrooms

55
Deficiencies
 Deficiencies of folate result in impaired
biosynthesis of DNA and RNA, thus reducing cell
division, which is most apparent in rapidly
multiplying cells such as red blood cells
 Neural tube defects such as spina bifida
 In blood, this is characterized by megaloblastic ,

macrocytic anaemia with large, immature

erythrocytes that have excessive amounts of
haemoglobin
 Dermatologic lesions and poor growth are also

symptoms

56
Toxicity
 No adverse effects of high oral doses of folate have
been reported in animals.
 It has been suggested that high levels of folate

may render zinc unavailable through the formation

of nonabsorbable complexes in the gut

57
Cobalamin (Vitamin B12)
Functions
 Vitamin B12 functions in two coenzyme forms:

adenosyl cobalamin and methylcobalamin

 In these reactions these forms of the vitamin play

important roles in the metabolism of propionate,

amino acids, and single carbons, respectively.
 These steps are essential for normal metabolism of

all cells, especially for those of the GI tract, bone

marrow, and nervous tissue

58
Sources
 Vitamin B12 is synthesized by bacteria, but the
vitamin produced from the microflora in the colon
is not absorbed
 The richest sources of the vitamin are liver and

kidney, milk, eggs, fish, cheese, and muscle meats

 Foods of plant origin contain the vitamin only

through contamination or bacterial synthesis

 Individuals consuming strictly vegetarian diets,

particularly after 5 to 6 years, typically have lower

circulating levels of vitamin B12 unless they
supplement with the vitamin

59
Deficiency
 Vitamin B12 deficiency causes impaired cell division,
particularly in the rapidly dividing cells of the bone
marrow and intestinal mucosa, through arrested
synthesis of DNA
 Megaloblastic anaemia is a major characteristic

because of the associated folate deficiency

 Produces neurologic abnormalities that develop

much later than anaemia

 These abnormalities involve progressive
neuropathy, with nerve demyelination commencing
peripherally and proceeding centrally

60
Toxicity
 No appreciable toxicity

61
Biotin
Functions
 Involved in the conversion of pyruvate to oxaloacetate

 Fatty acid formation

 Use odd chain fatty acids by converting propionate to

succinate
Sources
 Peanuts, almonds, soy protein, eggs, yoghurt, low fat

milk, and sweet potatoes are good sources

Deficiency
 Because biotin can be obtained from many foods and gut

microbial metabolism, simple biotin deficiency in animals

is rare
Toxicity
 It has no known toxic effects, even in very large doses 62
Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
 Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, functions in oxidation-
reduction reactions and is synthesized from
glucose and galactose by plants and most animals
 However, humans lack the enzyme l-gulonolactone

oxidase and thus cannot biosynthesize the factor,

which for them consequently is a vitamin

63
Functions
 Involved in the synthesis of collagen and carnitine and other
metabolic reactions
 Also participates in the hydroxylation of certain steroids
synthesized in adrenal tissue
 It also acts as an antioxidant
 Essential for the oxidation of phenylalanine and tyrosine
 The conversion of folate to tetrahydrofolic acid
 The conversion of tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan and the
neurotransmitter serotonin
 Reduces ferric to ferrous iron in the intestinal tract to facilitate
iron absorption
 Promotes resistance to infection through its involvement with the
immunologic activity of leukocytes, the production of interferon,
the process of inflammatory reaction, and the integrity of the
mucous membranes
 Reduces the severity of the symptoms of colds and flu 64
Sources
 Vitamin C is found in plants and animal tissues as
ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid
 The best sources are fruits, vegetables and organ

meats, but the actual ascorbic contents of foods

can vary with the conditions of growth and degree
of ripeness when harvested
 Pepper
 Orange juice
 Broccoli
 Strawberries
 Tomatoes
 Guavas
65
Deficiency
 Acute vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy in
individuals unable to synthesize the vitamin
 In human adults signs are manifest after 45 to 80 days
of vitamin C deprivation
 In children the syndrome is called Moeller- Barlow
disease
 Lesions occur in mesenchymal tissues and result in
impaired wound healing; oedema; haemorrhage; and
weakness in bone, cartilage, teeth, and connective
tissues
 Adults with scurvy may have swollen, bleeding gums
and eventual tooth loss, lethargy, fatigue, rheumatic
pains in the legs, muscular atrophy, skin lesions, and
various psychological changes 66
Toxicity
 The adverse effects of high doses of vitamin C in
humans include GI disturbances and diarrhoea
 Because the catabolism of vitamin C yields oxalate,

it is also reasonable to be concerned about the

possibility of high doses of the vitamin increasing
the risk of forming renal oxalate stones

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 THANK YOU

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