Debretabor University

Electromechanical engineering
department
2.0 INTRODUCTION

Motor
Electrical Mechanical
Energy Energy
Generator

Electromechanical Energy Conversion

 Pelec = vi = Teωm = Pmech

The machine’s magnetic field is the medium of

(energy) conversion.
 GLOSSARY
 Torque, T – A force that produces rotation on a axis and also
defined as a linear force multiplied by a radius. In an electric
motor, this is the force from the interaction of the magnetic
fields produced by the flow of current through the armature
and field windings/coils.
 Flux, Φ - The magnetic field which is established around an
energized conductor or permanent magnet. The field is
represented by flux lines creating a flux pattern between
opposite poles. The density of the flux lines is a measure of
the strength of the magnetic field.
 Magnetic field, B - A region of space that surrounds a moving
electrical charge or a magnetic pole, in which the electrical
charge or magnetic pole experiences a force that is above the
electrostatic ones associated with particles at rest.
 The voltage in any real machine will
depend on three factors:
1. The flux, Φ in the machine.
2. The speed of rotation, ω.
3. A constant representing the
construction of the machine.
 2.0 INTRODUCTION…contd
Flemming’s Left Hand Rule (Motor Rule)

 Use: To determine the direction of a force on a current carrying conductor

in a magnetic field.
 2.0 INTRODUCTION…contd

 The carbon rod is NOT magnetic.

 When no current flows, the rod is stationary
 When we turn on the current, the rod experiences a
force that makes it move.
 The direction of the force is determined by Fleming' Left
Hand Rule
2.1 CONSTRUCTION

Cutaway view of a dc motor

2.1 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

Stator with visible poles

2.1 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

Rotor of a dc motor.
2.2 CONSTRUCTION….contnd

General arrangement of a dc machine

 2.1 CONSTRUCTION….contnd
 The stator of the dc motor
has poles, which are excited
by dc current to produce
magnetic fields.
 In the neutral zone, in the
middle between the poles,
commutating poles are
placed to reduce sparking of
the commutator. The
commutating poles are
supplied by dc current.
 Compensating windings are
mounted on the main poles.
These short-circuited
windings damp rotor
oscillations. .
 2.1 CONSTRUCTION….contnd
 The poles are mounted on
an iron core that provides a
closed magnetic circuit.
 The motor housing supports
the iron core, the brushes
and the bearings.
 The rotor has a ring-shaped
laminated iron core with
slots.
 Coils with several turns are
placed in the slots. The
distance between the two
legs of the coil is about 180
electric degrees.
 2.1 CONSTRUCTION….contnd
 The coils are connected in series
through the commutator
segments.
 The ends of each coil are
connected to a commutator
segment.
 The commutator consists of
insulated copper segments
mounted on an insulated tube.
 Two brushes are pressed to the
commutator to permit current
flow.
 The brushes are placed in the
neutral zone, where the magnetic
field is close to zero, to reduce
arcing.
2.1 CONSTRUCTION….contnd

Commutator of a dc motor
 2.1 CONSTRUCTION….contnd
 The rotor has a ring-shaped
laminated iron core with slots.

 The commutator consists of

insulated copper segments
mounted on an insulated tube.

 Two brushes are pressed to

the commutator to permit
current flow.

 The brushes are placed in the neutral zone, where the

magnetic field is close to zero, to reduce arcing.
 2.1 CONSTRUCTION

 The commutator switches the

current from one rotor coil to
the adjacent coil.
 The switching requires the
interruption of the coil current.
 The sudden interruption of an
inductive current generates
high voltages .
 The high voltage produces
flashover and arcing between
the commutator segment and
the brush.
 2.2 DC MACHINE OPERATION
BASIC THEORY

B
I

w
h shaft

Next slide looks

down the shaft
 Armature winding

Lap winding Wave winding

Lap winding
Brush position
Parallel path
Wave winding
Refer page 50 teraja
2.2 DC MACHINE OPERATION BASIC THEORY….contnd

B
Current
coming
toward you

Shaft
Current leaving
away from you
 2.2 DC MACHINE OPERATION BASIC THEORY….contnd

direction by left-hand rule

B
Thumb = current
Forefinger = B
Rest = Force
F

F T = 2hFcos
= 2hIwBNcos
2.2 DC MACHINE OPERATION BASIC THEORY….contnd

B
2.2 DC MACHINE OPERATION BASIC THEORY….contnd

B
2.2 DC MACHINE OPERATION BASIC THEORY….contnd

B
 2.3 DC MACHINE OPERATION
 In a dc motor, the stator
poles are supplied by dc
excitation current, which
produces a dc magnetic field.

 The rotor is supplied by dc

current through the brushes,
commutator and coils.

 The interaction of the

magnetic field and rotor
current generates a force that
drives the motor.
 2.3 DC MACHINE OPERATION

 The magnetic field lines enter v B

into the rotor from the north
a

pole (N) and exit toward the S N Vdc

1
30
south pole (S).

2
 The poles generate a b

magnetic field that is v

Ir_dc
perpendicular to the current (a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)
carrying conductors. B
 The interaction between the a
field and the current
produces a Lorentz force. S
v 30 v
N Vdc
 The force is perpendicular to
both the magnetic field and b

conductor.
Ir_dc
(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
 2.3 DC MACHINE OPERATION
 The generated force turns the v
a
B
rotor until the coil reaches the
neutral point between the poles. S 30
N Vdc
 At this point, the magnetic field
b
becomes practically zero together v
with the force. Ir_dc
 However, inertia drives the motor (a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)

beyond the neutral zone where B

the direction of the magnetic field a

reverses. S N
v 30 v Vdc
 To avoid the reversal of the force
direction, the commutator b

changes the current direction,

Ir_dc
which maintains the (b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
counterclockwise rotation.
 2.3 DC MACHINE OPERATION
 Before reaching the neutral zone,
the current enters in segment 1
v B
and exits from segment 2, a

 Therefore, current enters the coil S 30

N Vdc
end at slot a and exits from slot b
during this stage. b

v
 After passing the neutral zone, the Ir_dc
current enters segment 2 and exits (a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)

from segment 1, B

 This reverses the current direction a

through the rotor coil, when the S N

v 30 v Vdc
coil passes the neutral zone.
 The result of this current reversal b

is the maintenance of the rotation. Ir_dc

(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
2.4 DC Generator Operation
 2.4 DC Generator Operation
Fleming’s Right hand rule (Generator Rule)
 Use: To determine the direction of the induced
emf/current of a conductor moving in a magnetic field.
 2.4 DC Generator Operation..contnd.

 The N-S poles produce a dc v

a
B

magnetic field and the rotor S 1

N
coil turns in this field. 30
2
Vdc

 A turbine or other machine b

drives the rotor. v

Ir_dc
 The conductors in the slots
(a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)
cut the magnetic flux lines,
which induce voltage in the a
B
rotor coils.
S N
 The coil has two sides: one is Vdc

2
v 30
v
placed in slot a, the other in

1
b
slot b.
Ir_dc
(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
 2.4 DC Generator Operation..contnd.

 In Figure (a), the conductors v B

in slot a are cutting the field a

lines entering into the rotor S 1

30
N Vdc
from the north pole, 2

 The conductors in slot b are b

v
cutting the field lines exiting
Ir_dc
from the rotor to the south
(a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)
pole.
 The cutting of the field lines a
B
generates voltage in the
conductors. S N Vdc

2
v 30
v
 The voltages generated in the

1
two sides of the coil are b

added. Ir_dc
(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
 2.4 DC Generator Operation..contnd.

v B
 The induced voltage is connected a

to the generator terminals S N

through the commutator and 30 Vdc
brushes.
b
 In Figure (a), the induced voltage v
in b is positive, and in a is Ir_dc
negative.
(a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2
 The positive terminal is connected (slot a to b)
to commutator segment 2 and to B
the conductors in slot b. a

 The negative terminal is S N

connected to segment 1 and to v 30
v Vdc
the conductors in slot a.
b

Ir_dc
(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
 2.4 DC Generator Operation..contnd.

v B
 When the coil passes the neutral a

zone: S N
30 Vdc
 Conductors in slot a are then

moving toward the south pole b

and cut flux lines exiting from v

Ir_dc
the rotor
(a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)
 Conductors in slot b cut the

flux lines entering the in slot B

b. a

 This changes the polarity of the S

v 30
v
N Vdc
induced voltage in the coil.
 The voltage induced in a is now
b

positive, and in b is negative. Ir_dc

(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
 2.4 DC Generator Operation..contnd.
 The simultaneously the commutator v
a
B
reverses its terminals, which
assures that the output voltage S 1
30
N Vdc
2
(Vdc) polarity is unchanged.
b

v
Ir_dc
(a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2
(slot a to b)
 In Figure (b) B
a
 the positive terminal is
S N
connected to commutator Vdc

2
v 30
v
segment 1 and to the

1
b
conductors in slot a.
 The negative terminal is Ir_dc
connected to segment 2 and to (b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1
(slot b to a)
the conductors in slot b.
 Armature reaction
1. It demagnetize or weakness the main
flux results voltage reduction
2. It cross magnetize it or distort it,
results sparking b/n brush and
commutater segment
 2.5 DC Machine Type
There are generally five major types of
DC motors:
 The separately excited dc motor
 The shunt dc motor
 The permanent magnet dc motor
 The series dc motor
 The compounded dc motor
 2.6 DC Machine Equivalent Circuit
 The magnetic field produced by the stator poles
induces a voltage in the rotor (or armature) coils
when the generator is rotated.
 This induced voltage is represented by a voltage
source.
 The stator coil has resistance, which is connected
in series.
 The pole flux is produced by the DC excitation/field
current, which is magnetically coupled to the rotor
 The field circuit has resistance and a source
 The voltage drop on the brushes represented by a
battery
 2.6 DC Machine Equ. Circuit..contnd.
1. Permanent magnet
• The poles are made of permanent
magnets.
• No field winding required.
• Small size.
• Disadvantage is low flux density, so low
torque.
 2.6 DC Machine Equ. Circuit..contnd.

2. Separately excited
The field flux is derived from a separate power source
independent of the generator itself.

B
Armature
Field winding
winding
 2.6 DC Machine Equ. Circuit..contnd.

3. Self-excited – shunt
machine
• The field flux is derives
by connecting the field
directly across the terminals
of the generator.

B
 2.6 DC Machine Equ. Circuit..contnd.

3. Self-excited -
series machine
• field are connected in
series with armature

B
 2.6 DC Machine Equ. Circuit..contnd.

3. Self-excited –
Compounded dc
motor
- both a shunt and a series field
are present
 2.6 DC Machine Equ. Circuit..contnd.

3. Self-excited
• Cumulatively compounded

B B

• Differentially compounded

B B
Refer page 56 teraja textbook
 Characteristics of DC generator

Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator

In a separately excited dc generator, field windings are energized by a separate external

source, rather than using the same supply used to supply the armature.

No-Load Characteristics :
It shows the relation between no-load generated emf E o and the field current at a given
speed. It is also known as magnetization characteristics or open-circuit characteristics
(O.C.C.).
•Where,K = constant = ZNP/60
•Eo ∝ field current
•φ ∝ field current
It is clear from the above expression that when the field current is increased by
varying the potential divider from zero, the flux φ and hence Eo increases. The
readings of Eo and field current should be tabulated and the relation between the two
should be plotted. The flux increases until the poles become saturated, after that a
greater increase in field current is required to produce a given φ and hence Eo.
Rc is critical
resistance the
slope at
which the
resistance of
the occ
tangent curve
Load characteristics :
The relation between the e.m.f. actually induced, E and the
armature current Ia gives the Internal characteristics.
Now the graph between V and load current should be plotted by curve ab. This is known as
load or external characteristic curve. It can be noticed from the graph that the voltage decreases
slowly with an increase in load current. While taking the readings the generator speed should
be maintained constant by varying the prime mover speed.
DC motor
 2.5 DC Machine Equ. Circuit..contnd.

The Equivalent Circuit of Separately Excited dc Motor.

From the above figure,

VF VT  E A  I A RA
IF 
RF IL  IA
 Shunt DC motors

The Equivalent Circuit of a Shunt dc Motor

From the above figure,

VF VT  E A  I A R A
IF 
RF I L  I A  I F
Torque Equation

T  k AI A
T = torque of armature (N-m)
kA = geometry constant
= flux/pole (Wb)
IA = armature current (A)
Geometry Constant
pN ' pN
kA  (rad / s ), k A  (rpm)
2M 60M

p = number of field poles

N = number of active conductors on armature
M = number of parallel paths in armature winding
(=p for lap winding, =2 for wave winding)
Power Equation

P  EI A  T
P=power (W) – not counting losses
E = EMF induced in armature (back EMF)
IA = armature current (A)
T = torque of armature (N-m)
 = speed of rotation (rad/s)
Note that Pin = VLIL which will be higher than P
because of loss in the field and armature windings as
well as rotational (friction) losses.
 EMF Equation

E  k A  k n ' 60

A n
2
E = EMF induced in armature (V)
kA = geometry constant
= flux/pole (Wb)
 = speed of rotation (rad/s)
n = speed of rotation of armature
(rpm)
 Terminal Voltage Equation
RA

VT  E  I A R A
+

E VT

-
-

VT = voltage at motor terminals

E = EMF induced in armature (V)
IA = armature current (A)
RA = armature resistance
 Speed Equation
VT  I A R A
n '
k A
(applies to shunt connected motor only)
Note that  can also be written as kfIf where kf is
/If (normally a constant ratio)

Ratio Equation

n2 E 2

n1 E1
 Speed-Torque
Speed

Differential Compound

Shunt

Cumulative Compound

Series
Torque
 Example 1
A 6 pole, 3.0 hp 120V DC lap-wound shunt motor has 960 conductors
in the armature. It takes 25.0 A from the supply at full load. Armature
resistance is 0.75, flux/pole=10.0 mWb, field winding current is 1.20A.
Find the speed and torque.
 746W 
P  3hp    2.24kW E  K A

 hp  
E

102V
 66.9rad / s

K A 153 10 x10 3

I A  I L  I F  25 A  1.2 A  23.8 A
E  VT  I A R A  120V  23.8 A0.75   102V
 60 
KA 
pN

6 960 
 153
n      638rpm
 2 
2M 2 6  P 2.24kW
T   33.5 N  m
 66.9rad / s
 Example 2
A 10hp, 115V Dc series motor takes 40A at its full load speed of
1800rpm. What is the torque at 30A?

2n 2 1800  T  K AI A  K A K F I F I A

   188rad / s
60 60
IF  I A
 746W 
P  10hp    7.46kW T  K AKF I A
2

 hp 
T 39.6 N  m
K AKF    0.025
P  T IA
2
40 A2
P 7.46kW
T   39.6 N  m Tnew  K A K F I Anew  0.02530 A  22.2 N  m
2 2
 188rad / s
 Example 3 (a)
A 220V DC shunt motor draws 10A at 1800rpm. The armature
resistance is 0.2 and field winding resistance is 440. (a) What is the
torque?

VT 220V
IF    0.5 A
RF 440 2n 2 1800 
   188rad / s
60 60
I A  I L  I F  10 A  0.5 A  9.5 A P 2.07kW
T   11.0 N  m
 188rad / s
E  VT  I A RA  220V  9.5 A0.2   218V

P  EI A  218V 9.5 A  2.07kW

 Example 3 (b)
A 220V DC shunt motor draws 10A at 1800rpm. The armature
resistance is 0.2 and field winding resistance is 440. (b) What will
be the speed and line current at a torque of 20 N-m (if field current is
constant)?

E  K A I L  I A  I F  17.3 A  0.5 A  17.8 A

K A 
E

218V
 1.16 E  VT  I A RA  220V  17.30.2   217V
 188rad / s
E 217V
   187rad / s
T  K AI A K A 1.16
T 20 N  m 60
IA    17.3 A n  1.79 x103 rpm
K A 1.16 2

(shunt is constant speed)