Distributed Forces

• Forces applied over a region whose dimensions are

not negligible compared with other pertinent
dimensions
• Summing via mathematical integration
• Line distribution (N/m); Area distribution (pressure
for liquids, stress for solids – N/m2); Volume
distribution (body force – N/m3) e.g. specific weight,
intensity of gravitational force
 Distributed Forces - Introduction

Line dist. Area dist. Volume dist.

 Centres of Mass & Centroids

• Determining centre of gravity location:

by experiment by principle of moments

 Centres of Mass & Centroids

• Sum of moments = moment of the sum!

• with

last 2 eqns independent of mass, hence they define

a unique point on the body which is function solely
of the distribution of mass. This point is called the
centre of mass; coincident with centre of gravity as
long as the gravity field is uniform and parallel
 Centroids of Lines, Areas & Volumes

• Centre of mass position calc. simplified by an

intelligent choice of reference axes e.g. polar
coordinates for bodies with circular boundaries
• Centroids used when calc. is for geometrical shape
only
• If density is uniform throughout the body, positions
of centroids and centres of mass are identical
 Centroids of Lines, Areas & Volumes

• Lines:

• Areas:

• Volumes:
 Centroids of Lines, Areas & Volumes
Choice of Element of Integration
• Order of element: whenever possible, first order
differential element is selected in preference to
higher order – one integration!

• Continuity: one continuous operation preferred over

 Centroids of Lines, Areas & Volumes
Choice of Element of Integration
• Discarding higher order elements: negligible error

• Choice of coordinates: choose what best matches

the boundary
 Centroids of Lines, Areas & Volumes
Choice of Element of Integration
• Centroidal coordinate of element: when a first or
second order differential element is chosen, it is
essential to use the coordinate of the centroid of the
element for the moment arm
 Example 1 - Centroids of Lines

• .
 Example 2 - Centroids of Areas I

• .
 Example 3 - Centroids of Areas II

• .
 Example 3 - Centroids of Areas II (cont’d)

• .
 Example 4 - Centroids of Areas III

• .
 Example 4 - Centroids of Areas III (con’d)

• .
 Example 5 - Centroids of Volumes

• .
 Example 5 - Centroids of Volumes (con’d)

• .
 Centroids of Composite Bodies

• Body or figure is conveniently divided into several

into several parts whose mass centres/centroids are
easily determined

• Approximate method: accuracy increased by

decreasing strip width
Example 6 - Composite Areas
 Example 7 - Composite Volumes/Masses

• Part 1:
• Part 3:
 Example 7 - Composite Volumes/Masses

• Part 1:
• Part 3:
 Theorem of Pappus
• Method for calculating the surface area generated
by revolving a plane curve about a non-intersecting
axis in the plane of the curve

• The generated area is the same

as the lateral area of a right circular cylinder of length L
and radius
• Volumes can be obtained in a similar manner
 Theorem of Pappus

• If line or area revolved thru an

an angle θ which is less than ,
replace with θ [radians]:
 Example 8 - Pappus Theorem

• Solution
 Example 9 - Pappus Theorem

• Solution:
 Special Topics - Beams
• Beams are structural members which offer resistance to
bending due to applied loads
• To analyse their load-carrying capacity: first establish
equilibrium requirements (statics); second establish the
relation between the resulting forces and accompanying
internal resistance to support these forces (mechanics of
materials)
• Types of beams:
 Special Topics – Beams (Ext. effects)

• Distributed load:
 Special Topics – Flexible Cables
• Structural member used in suspension bridges,
transmission lines, telephone cars, ‘cable’ cars, etc.
• Important for design is the relation between tension,
span, sag and length
• General relationship:
 Special Topics – Flexible Cables
• Parabolic cable:

• Catenary cable: