Overview

Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics:
application to Spintronics and Magnetization Dynamics.
I) Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
• I-1– Derivation of the transport equations
• I-2 – Kinetic coupling: cross-coefficients or internal degrees of freedom
• I-3 – Onsager reciprocity relations
• I-4 – The Hall effect

II) Application to spin-dependent transport

• II-1 – Ohm’s law including Hall effect anisotropy in ferromagnets
• II-2 – Ohm’s law in the two spin-channel model
• II-3 – Giant magnetoresistance

III) Application to the kinetics of the magnetization

• III-1 – Equilibrium states. Introduction to nanomagnetism:
• III-2 – Derivation from non-equilibrium thermodynamics

IV) Cross-efffect between magnetization and the spins of the charge carriers

• IV-1 - Spin-transfer and Spin pumping effect.

1
14/02/23 PHY581b Wegrowe
 The second law of thermodynamics
Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World
(1927)
The law that entropy always increases holds, I think, the supreme
position among the laws of Nature. […] if your theory is found to be
against the second law of thermodynamics I can give you no hope;
there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation.

Variational definition of the stationary regime:

"Kirchhoff-Helmoltz principle“ of least heat production.
The stationary states are those states at which dissipation is the minimum compatible with
the ensemble of constraints applied to the system.
Prigogine‘s theorem: H. Helmholtz
G. Kirchhoff
Stationary state : Minimum of the internal entropy production, 1824 - 1887 1821 – 1894
compatible with the ensemble of constraints applied to the system.
Onsager dissipation function :
Stationary state : Minimum of the “dissipation function”, i.e. the entropy production
including the terms describing the constrains.

No « universal » principle
In contrast to equilibrium states, the domain of validity of the « principles »
are rather restrictive L. Onsager
1903-1976 2
14/02/23 PHY581b Wegrowe
 Part III :
Kinetic equations of the magnetization
(magnetic dipole)

Jean-eric.wegrowe@polytechnique.edu Precesssion

1) Equilibrium states of the magnetization

•Magnetic dipole and equation of motion

•Ferromagnetism and Paramagnetism Hystereis loop

•Magnetic domain wall and single-domain

2) Non-equilibrium thermodynamics

•Transport equation : Landau-Lifschitz Gilbert equation

Thermal activation
•Ferromagnetic resonance

•Quasi-static states : hysteresis loop

02/14/23
3
PHY302 Wegrowe
 Magnetic storage: HDD and Magnetic RAM
Both magnetic and electronics breakthroughs (spintronics)

Hard disk drive areal densities from 1956 Two main breakthrough: Spintronics
through 2009 compared to Moore's law and perpendicular anisotropy
HDD

Stability:
CAGR= Compound Annual Growth Rate (Rate return/ Marketing) HAMR= Heat Assisted Magnetic Recording.

Volume V
The size of a memory unit
is limited by thermal activation:
Arrhenius law
B=0
Barrier height:
Eb = Keff V
proportional to the volume V
(at zero external field).
02/14/23 Integration => increasing Keff 4
 The magnetic dipole
defined by the Ampère molecular courants
Compass
Classical The potential vector of the loop
Electromagnetism dipolar approximation
defines the magnetic dipole 
with dipole expension calculated at a>> r

Magnetic dipole:
A.-M. Ampère
1775 – 1836
r >>a Professor at
Ecole Polytechnique
Angular mometum
u of a rotating electric charge
of mass m:
a 
v = gyromagnetic ratio
q g = Landé factor
current:

The magnetic dipole and the angular momentum have the same physical origin
=> The axial anisotropy generated in the space by a vector. Generalisation to the spin.

After Stern- Gerlach (1922) and Uhlenbeck – Goudsmit (1925) : g = 2 spin 1/2 instead of g=1 or angular momentum

02/14/23 PHY302 Wegrowe 5

 Einstein – De Haas experiment
A. Einstein and W. J. de Haas (1915)
Experimenteller Nachweis der Ampereschen Molekularstörme, Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, Verhandlungen 17, pp. 152–170 (1915).
« Proof of the existence of the Ampère molecular current »

Measure of the link between

magnetization and mechanical torque
(adaptation of the Coulomb balance).
Macroscopic measurement (mechanical torque)

=> Measure of 
[ see also J. Barnett, Science 30, 413 (1909) ]
Replica of the historical Einstein-de Haas experiment (2005)
Richardson,
Ampère (1825), Maxwell (1881), Richardson (1908), Barnett (1909),Einstein (1914)… Solvay 1927
Nobel price 1928

Quest for 
Peter Galison: « How experiments End » (Fig. 2.15 p67) g
g=1 : angular moment
g=2: spin 1/2

1922: Stern - Garlach

1925: Uhlenbeck - Goudsmit
1928: Pauli, Heisenberg, Dirac …

6
02/14/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
 Precession of the magnetization:
from microscopic spin to magnetization
Macroscopic magnetic moment 1024 Microscopic
= magnetization: (« molecular ») dipoles

Newton’s law with the torque:

= gyromagnetic ratio

(1)
Isac Newton
1643 - 1727
Typical time scale
=> Larmor frequency and
For the free electrons:  = 1011 C kg-1
See Complement
~ 16 GHz/Tesla (slides 20 to 22)
for the full
GMR Read Head, 1 m Precession with quantum treatment
B NIST, Boulder, JAP 93(2003) damping (dissipation) with spin ½:
(no included in (1))
Ferromagnet
Both quantum and classical
B formalisms lead to an
dM equivalent
M description of the precession
for the mean values.

7
02/14/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
 Magnetic resonances:
Nuclear (NMR) - Paramagnetic (EPR) - Ferromagnetic (FMR)
Nuclear Magnetic Electronic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic Resonance
Resonance Resonance 0
Power absorbed:
Experimental set-up (NMR):
Signal measured on a coil
for water.
Bloembergen, Purcell and Pound
Phys. Rev. 73 (1948)
B
+ damping Stationary state:
The energy of the RF electromagnetic field (generator)
Introduction of damping: transverse relaxation time T2 compensates the dissipation.

Like for the Drude model

Introducing External rotating
magnetic field in the plane xy:

Forced regime: Power density Exercise:

absorbed

Half width at half power: 

See following section: non-equilibrium thermodynamics description
8
02/14/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
 Paramagnetic state In contact to an
heat reservoir
Statistical ensemble of magnetic moments : (Brownian motion)


Configuration space:

Energy:

Boltzmann distribution
(see PHY305)
Normalization Rotational Brownian
(Partition function Z) motion at equilibrium

Mean value:

On the surface of the sphere

(non-euclidian space)

Easy to calculate
PHY433
14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
9
 Paramagnetism: the Langevin function

For N independent moments M = N <

Competition between
thermal agitation kT
Integration =>
and magnetic ordering
Langevin function: along B

Spin ½ (quantum) Paramagnetism ≠ Ferromagnetism

(this lecture)

(0)
Magnetic
No magnetic storage
susceptibility 
due to thermal agitation

(1)
Paul Langevin, Magnétisme et théorie des électrons, Ann. Chim. Phys. 5, p 70 (1905) Magnetic storage at H=0
10
14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
 Ferromagnetic domains and micromagnetic limite
Ferromagnetism: collective behaviour = phase transition: the order parameter M depends on the temperature.
Ensemble of strongly coupled microcopic spins or dipole .
Ferromagnetism =>
exchange coupling between at zero magnetic field
neigbouring spins
Dipole
Magnetic Domains magnetic field  «Demagnetizing field » Array of compass
due to dipole interaction

Induction - Magnetization

Microscopic description: External field

Exchange anisotropy dipole field

« Micromagnetic » limit: External and

Continuous limit Exchange Anisotropy dipole fields

Exchange stifness constant: (J/m)

02/14/23 PHY302 Wegrowe 11

 Competing energies: four main contributions
exchange anisotropy dipole field and external field
Total Effective field
(functional derivative)

Static configuration for

Anisotropy field:

axial symmetry

Field lines closed: div(B) =0

or shape

14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe 12

 Exemple of « topological states»: the « skyrmions »

Adding a surface term to the energy.

 Hedgehog state
« hedgehog » state
in an external magnetic fiels

Configuration space
(distribution of magnetic moments
on the surface of unit sphere)

Measured
on thin layers:

Under the rotation R about the 𝑧-axis and the stereographic

projection P, the non-chiral skyrmion and Left/Right chiral
skyrmion can be transformed into each other.

14/02/23 13
 Magnetic Domain wall at equilibrium
No external field
No internal dipole field
One dimension M(x)
Uniaxial anisotropy
x

The intergant L plays the role of a Lagrangian:

(1) where

(analogous to
Euleur-Lagrange equation(*) (2) Newton equation *)

(1) and (2) J.-L. Lagrange

(3) 1736 - 1813

(3)
(4)

(4) Typical length scale of

a Domain Wall

We know that
(*) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_mechanics
02/14/23 14
PHY302 Wegrowe
 Magnetic Domain wall at equilibrium
Profile of a 1D
Magnetic domain wall
2Arctan(ex)
(Landau-Lifchitz 1935)
(x

x
x Lev Landau
1908 – 1968
Nobel 1962
Take-home message :
magnetic nanostructures => uniform magnetization

Co (hard): lDW ~ 10nm

exchange
anisotropy Fe: lDW ~ 100 nm

Ni : lDW ~ 150 nm
If size < lDW FeNi (soft) lDW ~ 1 m

=> single magnetic domain => uniform magnetization Louis Néel

1904 – 2000
Nobel 1970

02/14/23 15
PHY302 Wegrowe
 Magnetic single domain
•Below a typical critical size < 1 m
•Above: displacement of domain walls or distribution of switching fields

02/14/23 16
 PHY581b
Kinetic equations of the magnetization
(magnetic dipole)
Jean-eric.wegrowe@polytechnique.edu Precesssion

A) Equilibrium states of the magnetization

•Magnetic dipole and equation of motion

•Ferromagnetism and Paramagnetism Hystereis loop

•Magnetic domain wall and single-domain

B) Non-equilibrium thermodynamics

•Transport equation : Landau-Lifschitz Gilbert equation

Thermal activation
•Ferromagnetic resonance

•Quasi-static states : hysteresis loop

02/14/23 PHY302 Wegrowe

17
 Configuration space for the
uniform magnetization M
Magnetic moment Coupled to the heat bath
(internal degrees of freedom)
Configuration space
Single domain (modulus conserved)
Sphere

Statistical ensemble = density of moments in 

conserved
Irreversibility

Magnetization current (on the surface of the sphere)

Ferromagnetic Energy for uniaxial anisotropy

angle of the applied field Double well potential (uniaxial anisotropy)

18
02/14/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
 Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation (LLG)
(not to be confused with
Chemical potential: the magnetic moment) Onsager matrix of ferromagnetic transport coeficients

Power dissipated
Onsager reciprocity relations
Symmetric dissipation
Transport equations :

Effective Equivalence with LLG equation (see next slide) =>

magnetic field

Magnetization current
LLG equation

Landau-Lifshitz 1935 / Gilbert 1956 (spinning top) / Brown Jr. 1963 (stochastic)

02/14/23 PHY302 Wegrowe

19
 Gilbert equation vs.
Landau-Lifshitz equation

Landau-Lifshitz equation 1935 : g’= 

(1)

Precession
With damping

(1) Is equivalent to Gilbert’s equation 1956:

L. Gilbert: derivation from lagrangian approach:
analogy with the spinning top!
(2)
 = Gilbert damping = Rayleigh dissipation

Transport coefficients (phenomenological parameters) :  = 28 GHz/T

Normalized Gilbert damping
where
See publication about the Gilbert approach: J.-E. Wegrowe, M.-C. Ciornei
Magnetization dynamics, gyromagnetic relation, and inertial effets, Am. J. Phys. 80, 607 (2012) 20
PHY302 Wegrowe
 Precession terms: ferromagnetic resonance (FMR)
Damping = alignement =
Quasi-static states
(hysteresis loop)
Precession= sub-nanoseconde
and damping

damping Boulder, NIST, JAP 93(2003):

GMR head ≈ 1 micron
No AC magnetic field!

Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR)

Resonance =
injecting energy
to compensate
damping

29 GHz
at 1T 21
14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
 Longitudinal term
Stationnary states and quasi- equilibrium
Quasi-statique process (mechanical equilibrium):
 Quasi-static magnetization states: E.C. Stoner, E.P. Wohlfarth,
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser., A240 (1949)
 Ferromagnétic single domain .
 Constant modulus Ms
 Case of uniaxial anisotropy : E = K sin2  – HMs cos ( – )
 Quasi-statique states defied by : (dE/d= 0 M/Ms = cos()




dV/d= 0
d2V/d< 0

0Ha = 2K/Ms 22
14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
 Hysteresis loop:
Magnetization as a function of the applied field
M/Ms=cos(- )
cos()
Magnetization: quasi-static states
(dV/d= 0

 = 70°
hsw
h
 = 70°

 hsw
Applied magnetic field
Anisotropy field

Question: how is hsw defined?



23
02/14/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
 Calculation of hsw (at zero temperature)
The Stoner – Wohlfarth model (1949) Quasi-statique process
No dependence (axial symmetry) (mechanical equilibrium):
Energy: E =>

EXERCISE : hsw
 Switching field hsw()
 as a function of the angle 
of the applied field


« Experimental evidence of the Néel-Borwn Model of magnetization Reversal »
W. Wernsdorfer et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 1791, 1997

Single Co ellipsoidal nanoparticle (25 nm) Thermal activation for a small energy barrier:

14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe

24
 LLG equation including diffusion and the
corresponding Fokker-Planck equation

drift diffusion drift diffusion

Conservation equation of the magnetization:




   

same as Brown equation’s

Where the density  plays the role of the probability distribution W

14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe
25
 Generalization to non-uniform magnetization

14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe

26
 Conclusion

A) Equilibrium states of the magnetization

•Paramagnetism: thermal energy kT dominates

•Ferromagnetism: collective mode: anisotropy and dipole fields x
•Magnetic single-domain at nanoscale:

B) Non-equilibrium thermodynamics

•Transport equation : Landau-Lifschitz Gilbert equation

•Ferromagnetic resonance
•Quasi-static states : hysteresis loop
Hystereis loop Thermal activation
Precesssion

14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe

27
 Relation between classical magnetic
moment and microscopic spin ½:

W. Pauli and N. Bohr looking at a spinning top.

Both quantum and classical
formalisms lead to equivalent
description of the precession
of the mean value of a magnetic moment.
The difference is the factor ½ in
the gyromagnetic ratio!!

14/02/23 PHY302 Wegrowe 28