How Cells Harvest Energy

Chapter 7
Why Do We Need to Eat Plants?
 How to Make ATP?

• Substrate-level phosphorylation is a way of making

ATP during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle by the
enzymatic transfer of phosphate group from
a phosphorylated organic substrate directly to ADP
 ATP Synthase
• Oxidative phosphorylation produces the largest
amount of ATP and occurs in the inner mitochondrial
membrane

- ATP synthase
phosphorylates ADP to form

ATP, using energy from a

proton (H+) gradient
 How Does ATP Synthase Work?
• Proton gradient is created
by proton (H+) pumps

• Proton pumps need high energy electrons to function

• The force of protons diffusing through ATP synthase

is used to produce ATP (chemical energy) and is
called chemiosmosis
 Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
• Proton pumps are part of ETC

• They pump H+ up the concentration gradient, using

energy from electrons
Electron Shuttles: NAD+ and FAD
 Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

• Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in cellular

respiration
 Glycolysis

• Converts 1 glucose (6 carbons) to 2 pyruvate (3 carbons)

• Occurs in the cytoplasm

• Net production of 2 ATP molecules (4 ATP produced – 2

ATP consumed = 2 ATP) by substrate-level
phosphorylation

• 2 NADH produced by the reduction of 2 NAD+

The Beginning of Glycolysis

transfers phosphate from

ATP to C-6 of glucose

moves atoms around

transfers phosphate from

ATP to C-1 of fructose 6-
phosphate
 The Middle of Glycolysis

removes 2H atoms (2H+ and 2e-) from G3P and transfers 1H + and 2e- to NAD+

transfers phosphate
from BPG to ADP,
forming ATP
 The End of Glycolysis

transfers phosphate
from PEP to ADP,
forming ATP
What Happens with Pyruvate in the Presence
of Oxygen?

Pyruvate Oxidation
 What Happens with Pyruvate in the
Absence of Oxygen?

2 Pyruvate 2 Acetaldehyde + 2 CO2

Lactic acid fermentation

(in muscle cells)

Ethanol (alcohol)
fermentation
(in yeast)

2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH 2 Lactate + 2 NAD+

2 Acetaldehyde + 2 NADH 2 Ethanol + 2 NAD+

 Pyruvate Oxidation

• Occurs in the mitochondrial

matrix

• 2 pyruvate (3 carbons each) are

oxidized to 2 acetyl-CoA (2
pyruvate carbons each), which enter the
dehydrogenase Krebs cycle

• 2 NAD+ are reduced to 2 NADH

2 Pyruvate + 2 NAD+ + 2 CoA 2 Acetyl-CoA + 2 NADH + 2 CO2 + 2 H+

 or citric acid

The Krebs
or Citric
Acid Cycle
Mitochondrial matrix
 Krebs Cycle
• For each acetyl-CoA entering:

- release 2 molecules of CO2

- reduce 3 NAD+ to 3 NADH These electron

carriers proceed to
the ETC
- reduce 1 FAD to 1 FADH2

- produces 1 ATP by substrate-level

phosphorylation

• 2 acetyl-CoA yield 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and

2 ATP
Summary of Aerobic Respiration
An Overall Look on ATP Production
Summary of ATP Production by Aerobic Respiration
+ 4 ATP (via substrate-level phosphorylation)
+ 25 ATP (2.5 x 10 NADH)
+ 3 ATP (1.5 x 2 FADH2)
(-2) ATP (for transport of glycolytic NADH)
___________________________________
= 30 ATP in eukaryotes (32 in prokaryotes)

• NADH electrons activate three proton pumps in the

electron transport chain
• 2.5 ATP generated per molecule of NADH

• FADH2 electrons activate two proton pumps in the

electron transport chain
• 1.5 ATP generated per molecule of FADH
 Anaerobic Respiration

• Without oxygen as the final electron acceptor,

cells must rely exclusively on glycolysis to
generate ATP

• Fermentation reduces organic molecules in order

to regenerate NAD+

• Acetaldehyde (in yeast) and pyruvate (in animals)

are the organic molecules serving as final electron
acceptors
 Anaerobic Respiration
• Two major types of fermentation:
1. Ethanol (Alcohol) Fermentation
- occurs in yeast
- electrons are transferred from NADH to
acetaldehyde to produce ethanol
 Anaerobic Respiration
2. Lactic Acid Fermentation
- occurs in animal cells (especially muscle cells)
- electrons are transferred from NADH to
pyruvate to produce lactate or lactic acid
 Controlling Aerobic
Respiration

• In glycolysis,
phosphofructokinase is
allosterically inhibited by
ATP and/or citrate

• In pyruvate oxidation,
pyruvate dehydrogenase is
inhibited by high levels of NADH
Why Do We Need to Eat Proteins and Fats?

+ Glycerol