MA211

Calculus: LECTURE 1

1
 Polar Coordinate System (Sec. 10.2)
The position of a point in 2-space can be found either via
• xy - coordinates, or
• r- coordinates

In the xy-coordinates, the point is relative to two

perpendicular axes.
y P(x,y)

0 x
2
 In the r – coordinates, a point is relative to
(1) a fixed point, and (2) an exis emanating
from the fixed point.

P( r,)  = angular coordinate

r = radial coordinate,
r
 or terminal axis

fixed point is axis is called

called the pole, polar axis
or origin, 0 3
Sign Convention
P(r1, ) = P(r1, )

 r1


polar axis
0 
r2
r1 P(r2, )

P(r1, ) = P(r1, ) 4

 Ex. Plot the point 2,  3 in polar coordinates.
Solution
2,  3   2, 4 3
2
 3
polar axis
0
Ex. Plot the point (2,  3) in polar coordinates.
Solution
0 polar axis
 3
2
 2,  3   2, 2 3
5
It is clear that the same point can be reached via the
rectangular coordinate system (RCS) or the polar coordinate
system (PCS).

y P(x,y) P(r,)
r
 polar
axis
RCS x 0 PCS
superimpose
RCS on PCS x  r cos 
P(x,y) y  r sin 
y =P(r,) r 2  x2  y2
r

y
0 tan  
x polar axis x 6
Example Show that ALL possible polar coordinates of the point
 3,3 3 , which is in the x, y - plane, are
 2    
 6,  2 n  or   6,   2 n  
 3   3 
where n is an integer.
Solution
3 3
2
r x y  2
 3 2
 
3 3
2
 6  r*

r 3 3 
tan    
 3 3

 2
3
 *        
3 3
r* * 2 
and     
3 3 7
Thus,
   2  3 3
 3,3 3  r ,    6,  r
Also  3 


 3,3 3   r,    r , 
* *  
   6, 
3
3

 *   

Hence, since we can reach the same point r*
after a cycle, that is, after 360 degrees, we
have, in general

 
 2   2
 3,3 3   6,    6,

 2n 
or  3   3 
 
    
 3,3 3    6,     6,  2n 
3  3
 
where n  0,1,2,  8
Curves in Polar Coordinates
In the xy-space, we get a curve by plotting y = f (x) or
f (x,y) = c, where c is a constant.
In the r - space, we get a curve by plotting r  f  .
There are 2 very simple methods to draw r  f  :
 point - by - point plotting
 superimposing a xy - plane onto a r - plane
and then convert r  f   to y  f ( x) or
f ( x, y )  c using any or all of
2 2 2 y
x  r cos  , y  r sin  , x  y  r , tan  
x
Both methods are complemented by knowing the symmetry
of the curve.
9
Point-Plotting Technique
In this method,
pick some convenient intervals, like
 3 ,  4 or  6 to generate r  f  , and
since traditionally radians have always
been used, use the conversion   180 ,
and the two triangles

45 2 60
2 1
1 30
45
1 3 10
Example Sketch r  4 sin  by point - plotting.
Solution Take a convenient interval, say,  6 ,
noting that  can take on values in 0    2 .
 r  4 sin 
0
4, 2
30 
0
 41 2   2 2 3, 2 3 2 3, 3
6

4 3 2   2 3  3.5

60 
3
90 
 41  4 2, 5 6 2, 6
2
2
4 3 2   2 3  3.5

120  polar
3 0,0 axis
5

150  41 2   2
6
11
Continuing, we see that we are simply repeating the points.
 r  4 sin  4,  2  (4, 3 2

180   0
7
210 
4 1 2   2
6 2,  6  (2, 7 6
 3
270 
2
4 1  4
 11 polar
330 
6
4 1 2   2 0,0  0,    0,2  axis
360  2 0 2, 7 6 2,11 6

4, 3 2
Thus, it appears that the graph is a circle of radius 2 whose
center is at ( x, y )  ( 0, 2 ). 12
 Conversion to Rectangular Form Technique
Note that since r  4 sin is a relatively simple polar equation,
we can convert it to rectangular form. To see this, we have

2 2
r  16 sin 
2
2  y  Here, we use 
r  16   
r  y  r sin  , y  0 
4 2
r  16 y
4 2
r  16 y
13
 2
r  4y
2 2
x  y  4y
2 2
x  y  4y  0
x   y  2  2  Here, we complete
2 2 2
 
 the square 
This is the circle of radius 2 with center ( x, y )  ( 0, 2 ).
Example
Describe the graphs of the following polar
equations and find the corresponding
rectangular equation.

(a) r  2 (b)   (c) r  sec 14
3
Solution (a)
The graph of the polar equation r  2 consists of all points
that are two units from the pole.

2

Circle, r  2.


0 2
polar axis

3
2
15
To convert, we use the relationship r 2  x 2  y 2 to get

r2 r 2  22 x 2  y 2  22
Polar Rectangular
equation equation

(b)   3 radial
The graph of the polar equation 2 line
   3 consists of all points on the
LINE that makes an angle of  3 .   3

 polar
Question:
Question Why is the line 0 axis
below the polar axis 3
included? 2 16
To convert, we use the relationship tan  y x to get
 y
 tan   3  3 or y  3 x
3 x
Polar Rectangular
equation equation

(c) The graph of r  sec is not so evident by simple inspection,

so we convert to rectangular form by using x  r cos .

1
r  sec r 1  r cos or x  1
cos
Polar Rectangular
equation equation

Now, we see that the graph is a vertical line.

17
 
2 Vertical line,
r  sec


0 1 polar axis
3
2

18
If a polar curve is symmetric, then we can use it to our
advantage. Let us look at a symmetric polar curve, called the
lemniscate produced by r = f ().
lemniscate,
Observation 1:1 Symmetricity about the x-axis.
The sign and size of r do not change same even if we
use  or . That is, r = f () = f ().




19
Observation 2: 2 Symmetricity about the y-axis.
The sign and size of r do not change even if we use  or .
That is, r = f ()=f ().

 

20
Observation 3: 3 Symmetricity about the origin.
The sign and size of r do not change even if we use  or .
That is, r = f () = f ().



2

Do Exercise Set 10.1: 1 - 49, odd numbers 21

Symmetric Polar Curves
Let us look at a symmetric polar curve, called the lemniscate,
lemniscate
produced by r = f ().
Symmetricity about the x-axis.
The sign and size of r do not change even if we
use  or . That is, r = f () = f ().


5
6
6


7
6
22
Symmetricity about the y-axis.
The sign and size of r do not change even if we use  or .
That is, r = f ()=f ().


5
6
6
 

7
6

23
Symmetricity about the origin.
The sign and size of r do not change even if we use  or .
That is, r = f () = f ().


5
 6
6

2
7
6

24
Tests for Symmetry

[1] Symmetricity about the polar axis (or x-axis)

We get back r  f   if we replace  by   .

[2] Symmetricity about the line    2 (or y - axis)

We get back r  f   if we replace  by    .

[3] Symmetricity about the pole axis (or origin)

We get back r = f () if we replace  by + .
25
Example Use symmetry and point - plot to sketch r  3  2 cos .
Solution Test for Symmetry about the x-axis
Replace  by   to get

3  2 cos    3  2 cos0   
 3  2cos 0 cos   sin 0 sin  
 3  21  cos   0  sin  
 3  2 cos 
r
Thus r  3  2 cos  is symmetric about the x-axis.
26
Test for Symmetry about the y-axis

Replace  by    to get

3  2 cos     3  2cos  cos   sin  sin  

 3  2 1  cos   0  sin  
 3  2 cos 
r

Thus r  3  2 cos  is not symmetric about the y-axis.

27
Test for Symmetry about the origin

Replace  by    to get

3  2 cos     3  2cos  cos   sin  sin  

 3  2 1 cos   0  sin  
 3  2 cos 
r

Thus r  3  2 cos  is not symmetric about the origin.

28
Thus, given that r  3  2cos is symmetric about the
x - axis, we can plot those points for  in 0     .
Then we reflect the points along the x-axis.
(3,/2) (4,/3)
 r  3  2 cos (2,2/3)
0 5
(1,) (5,0)
 3 4
 2 3
2 3 2
 1
Cardiod
29
Example
Sketch r 2  4 cos 2 using symmetricity and point-plotting.
Symmetry
The polar curve is symmetric about the x- and y-axes, and
the origin. (Prove this.)
Point-Plotting
Recall that to plot y 2  x, x  0, for example, we derive
y   x and y  x , and then draw the two together.

y x

y x 30
In the same way, we derive r  2 cos 2 and r  2 cos 2 ,
and then draw the two together in the polar CS.
Now, in the rectangular CS, the graph of r  2 cos 2 ,
0    2 , is as follows :
2
r
1.5

0.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 
 4 3 4  5 4 7 4 2

Graph doesn’t exist between /4 and 3/4, and 5/4 and 7/4.
31
Plot convenient points

 30 150 210 330

r  2 cos 2 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.41

3 
4 4

5
6
6
Lemniscate
-2 2
7 11
5 7
6 6
4 4
32
The equation r  2 cos 2 produces the same graph.
Some Common Families of Polar Curves
Lines General Form

  0
 r , 0 
0
 no restriction on the sign of r 
  r , 0 

  0
 r , 0 
0
r  0

33
 Circles a  0
a
r  a

r   a cos r  a cos 
r   a cos  a a 2 a
a 2

a
a 2 r  a sin 
r   a sin 
a 2 r   a sin 
a
34
Roses
r   a cos n
Form: n  1, 2,3,
r   a sin n
If n is odd, then there are n petals, equally spaced,
with radius, a  0. 2

Example
1

2
r  2 sin 3
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5
r  2 sin 3
2
-1

-2
35
If n is even, then there are 2n petals, equally spaced,
with radius, a  0. 2

Example
1

r  2 cos 2
-2 -1 1 2

-1

-2

36
 Cardiod/Limacon r  a  b sin  , r  a  b sin 
a b 1 a b  1  Cardiod a b2
Limacon with
a3 Convex Limacon
innner loop
r  a  3 cos 
a 1 a7

1 a b  2
Dimpled Limacon
a5

Which angles
produced
• upper inner 37
Lemniscates
Form: r 2  a 2 cos 2
r 2  a 2 sin 2
Example 1.5

r 2  4 cos 2 1

2 0.5
r  4 sin 2
-2 -1 1 2

-0.5

-1

-1.5

38
Spirals (a  0)
 r  a ,   0, anticlockwise outward spiral
Example
10

5 3  2 4 6
-15 -10 -5 5 10 15

-5 r   , 0    6

-10 Archimedean
spiral
-15

39
  r  a ,   0, clockwise outward spiral
Example
10

 6  4  2   3  5
-15 -10 -5 5 10 15

-5 r   ,  6    0

-10 Archimedean
spiral
-15

40
The other spirals are (see textbook, page 709, for details)
a
 Hyperbolic Spiral, r  ,   0

 Parabolic Spiral, r  a  , 0  
a
 Lituus Spiral, r  , 0 
 b
 Logarithmic Spiral, r  ae ,   R

Do Exercise Set 10.2,

10.2 1-49 (odd), 58, 59, 63, 64

41