MMW Last TOPIC

Mathematics in the
Modern World
GEED 10053

Voting Methods and Apportionment

Prof. C. Equiza

CE
 MMW Last TOPIC

Voting Methods and Apportionment

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the students are able to

1. Interpret information from a preference table

2. State the fairness criteria
3. Determine the winner of an election using some voting methods
4. Decide if an election violates any of the fairness criteria
5. Apportion seats using some apportionment methods and state apportionment flaw

CE
 MMW WEEK 11 TOPIC

Voting Methods and Apportionment

The Voting System

In a democratic country like the Philippines, voting is an exercise

of rights and duties as citizens of the country. We vote in the
local elections, national elections, reality shows, and even in
large or small initiatives. Any voting process starts with voting for
a candidate followed by counting the votes and then declaring
the winner of the election.

It is not the voting that is democracy.

It is the counting.–Tom Stoppard
  CE
Voting Methods
In many decision making situations we encounter, it is
necessary to gather the preference of the group. Voting Preference Ballot and Preference Table
seems like such s simple idea. If you have two options,
whichever gets the most votes wins. But like most things in Social choice theory looks at processes by which
the world, election turn out to be not as simple as it appear. different and conflicting choices of members of a
While the basic idea of voting is fairly universal, the group are consolidated into a single choice of the
method by which those votes are used to determine a group.
winner can vary, especially when there are more than two
choices. In deciding upon a winner, there is always one A preference ballot is a ballot on which each voter
main goal: to reflect the preferences of the people in the ranks all eligible candidates, from first to last place,
most fair way possible. with no tied.
The question is, “Is there any voting method that satisfies
all the fairness criteria?”

CE
Example 1:

RANK Votes
1st B
A preference table is a table showing how many
2nd D
times each possible ballot was submitted.
3rd A
4th C

The table shows how 15 voters (6+5+3+1) cast their votes.

Example 2:                            
Six voters ranked A first, B second, C third, D fourth, five voters
Number of Votes
ranked B first, D second, A third, C last, and so on.
RANK 6 5 3 1

1st A B D C A voting method is a mathematical procedure that uses data from the
D B A
preference table to determine a winner.
2nd B
3rd C A A B
For the following discussion of each voting method (plurality, Borda
4th D C C D count, plurality-with-elimination, pairwise comparison), a fairness
criterion will also be included (head-to-head comparison, majority,
monotonicity, irrelevant alternatives).

CE
1. The Plurality Method

The simplest method of determining a winner in an

election with three or more candidates is called the
plurality method

In an election with three or more candidates that

uses the plurality method to determine a winner, the
candidate with the most first-place votes is the 1. Plurality means "more votes than
winner. any other candidate" while
majority means "more than 50%
Example 3: Suppose we have four candidates (A, B, C, and D) of the votes".
and the following preference table.
2. Every majority is plurality.
Number of Votes

RANK 14 10 8 4 1 3. Not every plurality is a majority.

1st A C D B C

2nd B B C D D

3rd C D B C B

4th D A A A A A wins using plurality.

CE
Head-to-Head Comparison Criterion

The head-to-head comparison criterion states that if

a particular candidate wins all head-to- head
comparisons with all other candidates, then that
candidate should win the election.

Example 3: Suppose we have three candidates (A, B, and C) and

the following preference table

Number of Votes
RANK 4 7 5 4

1st B A C B

2nd C C A A

3rd A B B C

By plurality method, B is the

winner. CE
Does this election violate the head-to-head comparison criterion?

The idea is to compare all combinations of two candidates at a time to see which
is preferred in a head-to-head matchup without the third candidate involved.

First, compare A and B. Twelve voters listed A higher than B while 8 voters listed B
higher than A. So, candidate A win a head-to-head matchup with candidate B.

Next, compare A and C. There are 11 voters who listed A higher than C and 9 who
listed C higher than A, so A also wins a head-to-head matchup with C.

Without comparing B and C, we can see that the head-to-head comparison

criterion is violated: A defeats both B and C but candidate A did not win the
election using the plurality method.

Remark. The head-to-head comparison criterion doesn’t say that the winner of an
election has to defeat every opponent head-to-head. It says that if there is a
candidate that does defeat all others head-to-head, that candidate should win the
election.

CE
2. The Borda Count Method

Another method of voting when there are three or more

alternatives is called the Borda count method.

This method was developed by a French naval captain and

mathematician, Jean-Charles de Borda. However, the
method was used to elect Roman senators about 1600
years before Borda was born.

The Borda count method of voting requires the voter to rank

each candidate from most favorable to least favorable then
assigns 1 point to the last-place candidate, 2 points to the next-
to-the-last candidate, 3 points to the third-from-the-last
candidate, etc. The points for each candidate are totaled
separately, and the candidate with the most points wins the
election.

CE
 Example 4:
Number of Votes
Suppose we have four candidates (A, B, C, and D) and RANK 14 10 8 4 1
the following preference table 1st A:56 C:40 D:32 B:16 C:4
4
Number of Votes
2nd B:42 B:30 C:24 D:12 D:3
3
RANK 14 10 8 4 1
3rd C:28 D:20 B:16 C:8 B:2 2
1st A C D B C
4th D:14 A:10 A:8 A:4 A:1 1
2nd B B C D D

3rd C D B C B A gets 79 points (56+10+8+4+1),

4th D A A A A B gets 106 points (42+30+16+16+2),
C gets 104 points (28+40+24+8+4) &
Use the Borda count method to determine the winner. D gets 81 points (14+20+32+12+3).

Solution: Since there are four candidates, we assign 1 point
for the fourth choice, 2 points for the third choice, 3 points
for the second choice and 4 points for the first choice.
Multiply the number of votes by the number of choice for
each candidate to get the total points. Hence we have the
Borda scores,
The winner is B.
Remark. Make sure to assign the most points to
the candidate listed first. It is just very common to
mistakenly assign one point for a first place vote,
two points for the second, and so on.

CE
 Majority Criterion

The majority criterion states that if a candidate

receives a majority of first-place votes then that
candidate should be the winner of the election.
Example 5:
Suppose we have three candidates (A, B, and
C) and the following preference table.
By Borda count method, we have the following total points for
Number of Votes
each candidate A: 65; B: 39; C: 64 (Verify.) Hence, A is the
RANK 11 7 6 4 winner. However, of the 28 ballots cast, 15 listed C first which
means that a majority of voters listed C first. Since C did not
1st C:33 A:21 A:18 C:12
win, the majority criterion is violated.
2nd A:22 B:14 C:12 B:8
A (22+21+18+4) =65
3rd B:11 C:7 B:6 A:4
B (11+14+6+8) = 39
C (33+7+12+12) =64

CE
3. The Plurality-with-Elimination Method

The plurality-with-elimination method was designed

specifically with the majority criterion in mind; if no candidate
gets a majority of first-place votes, a series of rounds is used in
which candidates are eliminated and votes are recounted. This
method is commonly called the instant runoff voting and some
refer to this method as survival of the fittest method.

In the plurality-with-elimination method, the candidate with the majority of

first-place votes is declared the winner. If no candidate has a majority of first-
place votes, the candidate(s) with the least number of first-place votes is
eliminated, then the candidates who were below the eliminated candidate move
up on the ballot, and the number of first-place votes is counted again. If a
candidate receives a majority of first-place votes, that candidate is declared the
winner. If no candidate receives the majority of first-place votes, the one with
the least number of first-place votes is eliminated, and the process continues.

CE
Example 5:Suppose we have four candidates (A, B, C, and D) and the following preference table

Number of Votes

RANK 14 10 8 4 1

C D B C
Use the plurality-with-elimination method to determine the
1st A
winner.
2nd B B C D D

3rd C D B C B

4th D A A A A

Solution.
Round 1: A has 14 first places, B has 4 first places, C has 11
first places, and D has 8 first places
Eliminate B
Number of Votes

RANK 14 10 8 4 1

1st A C D C

2nd C D D

3rd C D C

4th D A A A A

CE
Round 2: A has 14 first places, C has 11 first places, and D has 12 first
places.
Eliminate C
Number of Votes Number of Votes

RANK 14 10 8 4 1 RANK 14 10 8 4 1

1st A C D D C 1st A D D

2nd C D C C D 2nd D D

3rd D A A A A 3rd D A A A A

Round 3: A has 14 first places and D has 23 first places

Number of Votes

RANK 14 10 8 4 1

1st A D D D D

2nd D D A A D

Hence, D wins.

CE
 The Monotonicity Criterion
The monotonicity criterion states that if a candidate wins an
election, and a reelection is held in which the only changes in
voting favor the original winning candidate, then that candidate
should still win the reelection.
Example 6. Suppose we have three candidates (X, Y, and Z) and
the following preference table
Number of Votes
Using the plurality-with-elimination method,
RANK 7 13 11 10 candidate Y is eliminated in round 1.
1st X Z Y X
With Y eliminated, the preference table will now be
2nd Z X Z Y
Number of Votes
3rd Y Y X Z
RANK 7 13 11 10

1st X Z Z X

2nd Z X X Z

Hence, Z wins with 24 first-place votes

CE
Now, suppose the first election was declared invalid for some
reason, and on a second election, the voters in column 1 change
their ballots in favor of candidate Z and vote ZXY.
The new preference table will now be
Number of Votes
With X eliminated, the preference table looks like this
RANK 7 13 11 10
Number of Votes
1st Z Z Y X
RANK 7 13 11 10
2nd X X Z Y
1st Z Z Y Y
3rd Y Y X Z
2nd Y Y Z Z

Here, X is eliminated on the first

round.
Now, Y is the winner with 21 votes compared to 20 votes for Z.

Observe that in this example, the plurality-with-elimination

method fails the monotonicity criterion. Even though candidate
Z received 7 more votes for the first place , still he lost the
election.
CE
4. The Pairwise Comparison Method

The pairwise comparison method uses a preference table to

compare each pair of candidates. We can use the formula for
combination of n distinct objects choose r at a time, nCr, to
determine the number of pairwise comparisons needed.

The pairwise comparison method of voting requires that all

candidates be ranked by the voters. Then each candidate is
paired with every other candidate in a one-to-one contest. For
each one- to-one comparison, the candidate who wins on more
ballots gets 1 point. In case of a tie, each candidate gets 0.5
point. After all possible two-candidate comparisons are made,
the points for each candidate are tallied, and the candidate with
the most points wins the election.

CE
Example 7. Suppose we have four candidates (A, B, C, and D)
and the following preference table
Number of Votes
Next, compare A vs C.
RANK 14 10 8 4 1
A is preferred by 14 over C whereas C is preferred by 23 over
1st A C D B C A. C wins. Assign 1 point to C
2nd B B C D D

3rd C D B C B A vs D.
4th D A A A A
A is preferred by 14 over D whereas D is preferred by 23 over
A. D wins. Assign 1 point to D.

Use the pairwise comparison B vs C

method to determine the winner
Solution. Since there are four candidates, we
will need 4C2 = 6 pairwise comparisons: A vs
B, A vs C, A vs D, B vs C, B vs D, and C vs
D.
First, let us consider A vs B.
A is preferred by 14 over B
whereas B is preferred by 23 over
A. B wins. Assign 1 point to B.
B is preferred by 18 over C whereas C is preferred by 19 over
B. C wins. Assign another 1 point for C.
B vs D
B is preferred by 28 over D whereas D is preferred by 9 over B.
B wins. Assign another 1 point for B.
Finally, compare C vs D
C is preferred by 25 over D whereas D is preferred by 12 over
C. C wins. Another 1 point will be assigned to C. CE
 Example 7. Suppose we have four candidates (A, B, C, and D) Complete Solutions #7
and the following preference table 4 C2 = 6

Number of Votes

RANK 14 10 8 4 1

1st A C D B C

2nd B B C D D

3rd C D B C B

4th D A A A A

Use the pairwise comparison

method to determine the winner

Solution. Since there are four candidates, we will

need 4C2 = 6 pairwise comparisons:
A vs B, A vs C, A vs D, B vs C, B vs D, and C vs
D.

CE
 Use the pairwise comparison
method to determine the winner Next, compare A vs C.
A is preferred by 14 over C whereas C is preferred
Solution. Since there are four candidates, we by 23 over A. C wins. Assign 1 point to C
will need 4C2 = 6 pairwise comparisons: A vs
B, A vs C, A vs D, B vs C, B vs D, and C vs Number of Votes

D. RANK 14 10 8 4 1
First, let us consider A vs B. 1st A C C C C

Number of Votes 2nd C A A A A

Number of Votes
RANK 14 10 8 4 1
RANK 14 10 8 4 1 A vs D.
A B
1st
â 1st A B B B B A is preferred by 14 over D whereas D is preferred
2nd B B
2nd B B A A A
by 23 over A. D wins. Assign 1 point to D.
3rd B B

4th A A A A Number of Votes

RANK 14 10 8 4 1
A vs B.
1st A D D D D

A is preferred by 14 over B whereas B is preferred 2nd D A A A A

by 23 over A. B wins. Assign 1 point to B.

CE
B vs C
B is preferred by 18 over C whereas C is
preferred by 19 over B. C wins. Assign Finally, compare C vs D
another 1 point for C. C is preferred by 25 over D whereas D is
Number of Votes preferred by 12 over C. C wins. Another 1
10 8 4 1
point will be assigned to C.
RANK 14

1st B C C B C
Number of Votes Number of Votes
2nd C B B C B
RANK 14 10 8 4 1
RANK 14 10 8 4 1

B vs D 1st C D C â 1st C C D D C

B is preferred by 28 over D whereas D 2nd C D D

2nd D D C C D
is preferred by 9 over B. B wins. 3rd C D C

Assign another 1 point for B. 4th D

Number of Votes

RANK 14 10 8 4 1

1st B B D B D

2nd B B B D D

CE
Summarizing the results, we have

TOTAL
Candidate A

Candidate B 1 1 2

Candidate C 1 1 1 3

Candidate D 1 1

Candidate C has the most points, hence, C is the winner

CE
The Irrelevant Alternatives Criterion

The irrelevant alternatives criterion requires that if a certain

candidate X wins an election and one of the other candidates is
removed from the ballot and the ballots are recounted, candidate
X still wins the election.

Example 8: Determine if the following violate the irrelevant

alternatives criterion
If A is eliminated, the preference table is now:
Number of Votes
Number of 14 13 16 15
RANK 14 13 16 15
Votes
1st B A C B
1st B C C B
2nd C C A A
2nd C B B C
3rd A B B C
Now there are 14 + 15 = 29 voters who preferred B to C, and
By pairwise comparison C won the there are 13 + 16 =29 voters who preferred C to B. The result is
election (verify), so the two a tie , which shows that this election violates the irrelevant
irrelevant alternatives are A and B. alternatives criterion. Candidate C shouldn’t have gone from a
win to a tie because one of the losing candidates dropped out. CE
 Fairness Criteria Satisfied by Various Voting Method

Fairness Criterion Plurality Borda Count Pairwise Plurality-with-

elimination
Comparisons

Majority Yes No Yes Yes

Head - to - head criterion
No No Yes No
Monotonicity Yes Yes Yes No

Irrelevant Alternatives No No No No

Remark. In 1951, an economist named Kenneth Arrow was able

to prove that there does not exist and never will exist a
democratic voting method for three or more alternatives that
satisfies all four of the fairness criteria. The result is know as
Arrow’s impossibility theorem.

CE
 Approval Voting
With approval voting, each voter gives one vote to as many
candidates on the ballot as he or she finds acceptable. The votes
are counted and the winner is the candidate who receive the Solution. From the table, count the
most votes number of votes for each candidate.
- An election was held for an employee of the Candidate A: 18+4=22 votes
month award using the approval voting. The Candidate B: 20+12+4= 36 votes
results are shown in the table below. Which Candidate C: 18+12+4=34 votes
candidate won? Candidate D: 20+4=24 votes
Number of votes 20 18 12 4 Candidate E: 12+4=16 votes

Candidate A 3 3 Hence, in this election, candidate B

wins with 36 votes.
Candidate B 3 3 3
Remark. In all voting methods , the
Candidate C 3 3 3
possibility of a tie should be considered
Candidate D 3 3 before the votes are counted and some
Candidate E 3 3 way of breaking a tie should be agreed on
in advance of the election
CE
 Assessment
The students in Dr. Lee’s math class are asked to vote on the starting time for their final exam. Their choices are
M for 8:00AM, A for 10:00AM, T for 12NN, or H for 2:00PM. The results of the election are shown in the
preference table below.
Number of votes 8 12 5 3 2 2

FirstChoice M A T H A M
Second Choice A M H T T H
Third Choice T H A M M A
Fourth Choice H T M A H T

1. Determine the starting time using the plurality method.

2. Using the plurality method, was the head-to-head comparison criterion violated?
3. Determine the starting time using the Borda count method.
4. Using the Borda count method, was the majority criterion violated?
5. Determine the starting time using the plurality with elimination method.
6. Using the plurality with elimination, was the majority criterion violated?
7. Determine the starting time using the pairwise comparison method.
8. If a room for Dr. Lee’s final exam was not available at 2:00PM, and the votes were
recounted in the election, is the irrelevant alternatives criterion violated? CE