Building Services -

I
Introduction
Outlin
e

Introduction to Building Services - I

- Water Quality, Treatments and Distribution
- Waste water, Treatments and disposal
- Storm water drainage and Rain water Hasvesting
- Solid waste, collections, treatments, disposal,
modern
drainage systems
- Application
What is
Classification Of Building
Services
Building services are mainly divided into:

Mechanical Systems,
Electrical Systems And
Building Operation System.

They are all very important part of planning, designing and

construction of a building.
Mechanical
Systems
•HVAC Systems: stands for “heating, ventilating and
air- conditioning”
Site Drainage: Rain water drainage, sanitary disposal,
Gas Supply: cooking gas, commercial gas, oxygen & nitrogen
gas in hospitals
Plumbing: water distribution, water treatment, sanitary facilities.
Fire protection: water supply, water sprinklers, fire and smoke
detection.
Electrical
Systems
•Electrical power: Normal, standby, emergency power supply
and distribution
Transportation: Elevators, escalators, moving walkways/
travelators, parking, etc.
Lighting: Interior, exterior, emergency light.
Auxiliary: Telephone, data, audio and video sound

Building operation systems:

•Processing: Products, food service, etc.
•Automation: Environmental controls, management, automated
lighting, automated parking, etc.
 Unit 1
Water supply, storage and
Distribution
This
term
1.Water supply
2. Drainage
3. Plumbing
4. Surface Water Drainage/Strom water Drainage
5. Rain Water Harvesting
6. Pumps
7. Septic Tanks
8. Solid Waste Management
Water
Supply

Providing Water to the Individuals, Group of people, Institutions,

Commercial organisation or for irrigation by a system of pumps or
pipes.
In 2010 about 84% of the global population (6.74 billion people)
had access to piped water supply.
Topics
1. Water Sources
2. Water Quality
3. Water Requirement for Res|Com|Industrial purposes
4. Water treatment plant
5. Distribution of water
6.Storage
7.Choice of Pipe materials
8.Plumbing system in a building
Significant dates in public water
supply
97- Early Rome had indoor plumbing, meaning a
system of aqueducts and pipes that terminated in
homes and at public wells and fountains for
people to use
1619 New River Company first to supply each home
- directly with its own water for a few hours per
1854 day John Snow establishes source of cholera epidemic
- in London as a contaminated supply well –
first understanding of water and health
1873 Continuous supplies in general use in London
- Most cities have a water supply with service pipes
1900 to homes
-
Source of
Water
Mainly divided into
Ground Water –
1. Deep or artesian
wells.
Surface Water –
1. Rainwater.
2. Rivers and lakes.
3. Sea Water.
Other Resources –
1. Snow
Ground
Water

Deep artesian wells furnish pure water as a rule, unless the

piping is not tightly jointed, when impure water from a subsoil
stream near the surface may enter the pipes.
Surface
water
Rain water takes up the dust and gases from the air, and organic
matter from the roofs over which it is collected - causing the water
to be unsafe for drinking purposes.
Rivers and lakes are a common source of water supply, but they
may be made very unfit for drinking if the surface water and
sewage from towns and cities is allowed to drain into them.
Other
resources
Freezing has little effect upon bacteria except to lessen
temporarily their vitality. When the ice melts, the bacteria may
again become active. The water can be converted into drinking
water by boiling.
 Water
.
Demands
Following are the various types of water demands of a city or town:
i. Domestic water Demand
ii. Industrial demand
iii. Institution and commercial demand
iv. Demand for public use
v. Fire demand
vi. Loses and wastes
Types of
intakes
Canal intakes
Reservoir or lake intakes
River intakes
Portable intakes.
Canal intake: intake chamber is constructed in canal section. The
entry of water takes through the coarse screen and the top of outlet
pipe is provided with fine screen. The Inlet to outlet pipe is of bell-
mouth shape with perforations of fine screen on its surface. The
outlet valve is open from top and it controls the entry of water into
the outlet pipe from where it is taken to the treatment plant.
FSL – full service level, LWL –low water level
Reservoir or lake
intakes
It consists of an intake well which is placed near the dam. It is
connected to the top of dam by a foot bridge. The intake pipes are
located at different levels with a common vertical pipe. The
working process remains the same as canal intakes.
River
intakes
River intakes:
An approach channel is constructed to lead the water from the
upstream side of the river to the jack well. The pen stocks with
screens are provided at different levels. The suction pipe provided
with strainer at its lower end. The water from the jack well is
pumped and sent to the treatment plant.
HFL –
HIGH
FLOOD
LEVEL
Portable intakes:
It consists of a truck fitted with a pumping plant. The truck is
brought to the site and it is placed in such a position that it
becomes possible to immerse the suction pipe of the pump.
Intake towers
For large projects and on rivers or reservoirs where there are more
chances of considerable fluctuations of water levels, the towers are
usually used. These towers are made of concrete and they are
provided with gate openings, known as the ports.
Types of intake towers:
Dry intake towers – in this type of intake tower, there will be no water
inside the tower when its gates are closed. The water is directly drawn
into the outlet pipe through the gate controlled entry ports.
Wet intake towers – the water enters from the open entry ports in to the
tower and it then enters into the outlet pipe through separate gate
controlled entry ports.
Water Demand
Amount of water required by the customer.
There are two types of water as a resource
Potable (which is fit for human Consumption)
& Non Potable (Which used for industrial and
agricultural consumption)
Global water demand is
Agriculture – 70%
Industrial – 20%
Domestic – 10%
Requirement of water depends on two major factors
Rate of Demand
Population
Rate of
Demand
Rate of Demand is based on the
purpose of consumption such as domestic purpose, Industrial,
Civic, Commercial etc.
National standard for
Domestic use of water is 135 lit. per head per day.
Industrial use of water is 45 litre per head per day.
In rural water supply system, it is necessary to consider
consumption of livestock.
Populatio
n

The growth of population calculated or projected for future

demand by different statistical methods as arithmetical increase
method, geometric increase method & graphical increase method
etc.
Loss of water due to the distribution network also needs to be
considered.
Water Consumption
Rate
Very difficult to asses the Quantity of water demanded by the
public, since there are may variable factors affecting water
consumption
There are various types of water demand in a city.
Water Consumption for various
purposes
Factors Affecting Rate of
demand
Per Capita
Demand
If ‘Q’ is the total quantity of water required for various purposes
by a town per year and ‘p’ is the population of town, then per
capita demand will be
Per capita demand =
litres / day
Source selection of
Water

Location
Elevation of intake
point
Quantity of water
Quality of water
 Water Quality
Drinking water or potable water is water safe enough to be
consumed by humans or used with low risk of immediate or
long term harm.

In most developed countries, the water supplied to

households, commerce and industry meets drinking water
standards, even though only a very small proportion is
actually consumed or used in food preparation.

Typical uses (for other than potable purposes) include toilet

flushing, washing and landscape irrigation.

Palatable Water -- Water, at a desirable temperature, that is

free from objectionable tastes, odors, colors, and
turbidity.

Contaminated water- Water pollution is the contamination

of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and
groundwater). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are
discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without
adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Pathogen water
Waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic
microorganisms that most commonly are transmitted in
contaminated fresh water. Infection commonly results during
bathing, washing, drinking, in the preparation of food, or the
consumption of food thus infected.
Qualit
y Water is the universal solvent. In nature, it is never totally pure. No
matter how isolated it is from sources of contamination, it will always
have some chemicals, Gases or minerals in the air, soil or rock are
dissolved by the water.
Some dissolved materials give water it’s characteristic taste – “pure
water” is generally considered to be flat and tasteless.
Purification or Treatment of water : mandatory requirement of civic
authority to supply potable water, safe water, free from all the
impurities.
Mainly three type of impurities
Physical Impurities: turbidity, colour, taste, odour
Chemical Impurity: hardness
Bacterial impurities: pathogenic bacteria.
Physical
Impurities
Turbidity:
refers to the cloudiness of the water.
It can be a problem in surface-water sources.
The materials causing the cloudiness can be inorganic--such as
clays, silts or sand--or organic, such as algae and leaf particles.

Colour:
Colour, a physical characteristic of water that is not noticed
unless it is very high
Taste:
Refers to Salty or brackish taste due to high sodium content,
Alkali taste due to high mineral content, Metallic taste due to
high metal content.

Odour:
Refers to odour due to more pollutant content in water
Chemical
impurities

Hardness:
Hardness in water is caused by significant amounts of calcium or
magnesium components.
Bacterial
impurities
Pathogenic bacteria

Disease-causing bacteria are called pathogen , their presence is

determined by testing for the presence of an indicator organismic
bacteria.
Stages of water
treatment
Clarification
Pre-treatment – Screening, Storage, Preconditioning, Pre-chlorination.
pH adjustment
Filter
Flocculation/Cogulation
Sedimentation
Disinfection
Distribution
Pre treatment
Pumping and containment - The majority of water must be
pumped from its source to tanks.
Screening - remove large debris such as sticks, leaves, trash and
other large particles.
Storage – water will be store for weeks or months to natural
biological purification called aeration.
Pre-conditioning - Water rich in hardness salts is treated with
soda-ash.
Pre-chlorination - incoming water was chlorinated to minimize
the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks
pH
Adjustments
Distilled water has a pH of 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic)
If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium
hydroxide is added to raise the pH
Making the water slightly alkaline ensures that coagulation and
flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimize
the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and lead solder
in pipe fittings
Flocculation
Flocculation is a process which clarifies the water. Clarifying
means removing any turbidity or colour so that the water is clear
and colourless.

Sedimentation:
It is a large tank with slow flow, allowing flocculation to settle to the
bottom. Sedimentation basins may be rectangular, where water
flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre
outward.
Filteration
Different types of filter media used to arrest physical and
bacteriological impurities

Disinfection
Finally bacteriological impurities to be removed before distribution
either by adding chlorine or ozone or ultra violet radiation.
Reverse Osmosis (RO) system used for purification water could
be boiled or purified by water purifier.
Reverse osmosis: Mechanical pressure is applied to an impure
solution to force pure water through a semi-permeable membrane
 System of supply of
water.
System of supply of
water.
There are two systems of supply from the mains to the service pipes depending on the
availability of water:
Continuous system
Intermittent system.
🞂 In the continuous system, water is supplied to the consumers 24 hours a day. This system is
definitely preferred but is not always possible due to poor available water pressure and
insufficient quantity of water.
In intermittent system of water supply, water is supplied to consumers for certain fixed hours a
day, usually about 1 to 2 hours in the morning and evening. In this system , the area is divided
into number of zones and timings in every zone is adjusted to maintain a proper working
pressure. Intermittent system has certain drawback like it demands greater sizes of water mains as
the supply is given for limited number of hours. Secondly, it is very difficult to fight fire, in
case it breaks out during non- supply hours.
Layout of distribution
pipes
Layout of distribution pipes:
The methods adopted for laying distribution pipes at town planning
level are:
Grid iron method
Radial method
Dead end method
Circular method
Grid iron method:
Sub-mains are laid from the main distribution line, which
further intercepts into branches. The whole layout is in the from
of grid.
This pattern promotes free circulation of water, hence less chances of
pollution due to stagnation.
This layout is suitable for well planned towns and cities.
The cut-off valves are used in case of incidents of fire, and in case
of repairs. By the manipulation of these valves, water can be
concentrated at one point in case of fire. The system requires longer
lengths of pipes and thus the laying proves is expensive.
Radial method:
In this system, water is taken from the main pumped into
reservoirs which are situated at the centers at different
zones. From these reservoirs water is supplied radially
through pipes.
The system provides quick water supply-service
The system is most appropriate for towns having
radial roads.
The calculation of sizes of pipes to be installed in
this system are also very simple.
Dead end method:
This method also consists of one main supply line which is divided into
sub mains and further into branches from which service connections are
provided to consumers.
The pipes are laid at random without following any grid pattern.
The system satisfies the irregularly expanding localities. This system,
also known as tree system of layout, has many dead ends and thus does
not permit free circulation of water.
This system has its limitations in case of repairs and fire.
Due to many dead ends in this system, chances of contamination of
water is increased.
The system proves economical as diameters of the mains are designed as
per the demand, and the number of cut-off valves are less.
the pipes need periodical cleaning.
Circular method:
Thus method is a reverse of radial method. Here a ring of mains is
formed around the distribution area.

The ring enclosing the area to be served can either be in the form of a
rectangle or circle. The entire distribution area is further sub –divided
into rectangular or circular blocks.
On the periphery of these blocks, the sub-mains are laid further,
through which service connections are given to consumers.
At domestic level:
At this level, water is conveyed from the street mains to the individual
building and then to the taps and other fixtures through house service
connections.
The house service connection consists of two parts- the communication
pipe which runs from the street mains to the boundary of the premises and the
service pipes which run inside the premises.
The communication pipe is laid and maintained by the local authority at the cost of
owner of the premises while the service pipe is laid by the consumer at his cost.
To prevent damage by traffic, communication pipe must be placed 0.75 m
below ground level and the depth is maintained until it is inside the building. The
rising pipe Is brought up an internal wall rather than external wall where it can be
affected by weather conditions.
A stop valve is placed immediately above the ground floor level.
In the planning of the building, the need is to centralize the plumbing to give an
efficient and economical layout of the appliance requiring water. I.e.. Bathrooms
close to kitchen, and water tank above the bathrooms, etc.
Water piping system in building
The following are the requirements of piping system in building
1. Plumbing of water lines should be such as not to permit back flow from
cisterns and sinks.
2. All joints shall be perfectly water tight and no leakage or spill at taps or cocks
should be allowed.
3. Pipelines should not be carried under walls or foundations
4. It should not be close to sewers or waste water drains. There should not be
any possibility for cross connections
5. When pipelines are close to electric cables proper precautions for insulation
should be observed
6. Plumbing lines should be such as to afford easy inspection and repair of
fixtures and joints
7. Number of joints should be less and number of bends should be less
8. It should supply adequate discharge at fixtures, economical in terms of materials
and protected against corrosion, negative pressure and noise due to flow in
pipes
PIPES AND REQUIREMENTS
Pipes convey water from the source to the treatment plants in the
distribution system. Water is under pressure always and hence the pipe
material and the fixture should withstand stresses due to the internal
pressure, vacuum pressure, when the pipes are empty, and temperature
stresses.
REQUIREMENTS OF PIPE MATERIAL
It should be capable of with standing internal and external pressures
2. It should have facility of easy joints
3. It should be available in all sizes, transport and erecting should be
easy.
4. It should be durable
5. It should not react with water to alter its quality
6. Cost of pipes should be less
7. The damaged units should be replaced easily.
How to Recognize Different Types of Pipes
The most common pipes used today are copper, PVC, or ABS. However,
when dealing with older homes, you might encounter a
number of other piping material. For example, homes built before 1960 used
galvanized steel or cast iron DWV (drain/waste/vent) pipe systems.
Here’s a quick look at types of pipes commonly used in homes,
beginning with the pipes used for DWV systems.
Cast iron: Commonly used before 1960 for the vertical drain, vent
stacks, and sometimes the horizontal drain lines. Cast iron is durable, but
can rust over time.
Plastic: Plastic pipe comes as either ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene- styrene)
or PVC (polyvinyl-chloride). Most homes since mid-1970 have plastic pipes
and fittings because it’s inexpensive and easy to use. Simply glue the joints
using a primer and liquid cement.
ABS: This black pipe was the first plastic pipe to be used in residential
plumbing. Today, many areas don’t allow ABS in new construction because
joints can come loose.
PVC: This white or cream-colored pipe is the most commonly used pipe for
drain lines. It’s strong, untouchable by chemicals, and seems to last forever!
CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) pipe has the strength of PVC but is heat-
resistant, which makes it acceptable in many regions for use on interior supply lines.
plastic pipes
PEX: PEX (cross-linked polyethylene) is the newest pipe for
residential use. PEX is easy to install because it cuts easily, is
flexible. PEX is three to four times more expensive than copper or
plastic.
Steel: Galvanized steel pipe is common in older
homes. Galvanized pipe is strong, but lasts only
about 50 years.

Copper: Copper pipe resists corrosion, so it’s

commonly used pipe in water supply lines. It costs
more than plastic but it lasts! There are 2 common
types of copper pipe:
Rigid copper, which comes in three thicknesses. Type M
is the thinnest but is strong enough for most homes. Types
L and Type K are thicker and used in outdoor and drain
applications.
Flexible copper, which is often used for
dishwashers, refrigerator icemakers, and other
appliances that need a water supply. It’s easy to
bend.
(Asbestos
cement
pipes)

(polyvinyl
chloride )
Valve
s• Control
Valves: Gate Valves
Check
Valves
Globe
Valves
Angle
Flush
Valves Ball
Valves
Valves
These are also known as gate-valves or stop valves or sluice
valves. These valve control the flow of water through pipes.. The entire
distribution system is decided into blocks by providing these valves at
appropriate places. They are provided in straight pipeline at 150-200m
intervals. When sluice valve is closed, it shuts off water in a pipeline to
enable to undertake repairs in that particular block. The flow of water can
be controlled by raising or lowering the handle or wheel. This is very
useful in intermittent system of supply of water.
 CHECK VALVE or REFLUX VALVE
These valves are also known as non-return valves. A reflux valve is an
automatic device which allows water to go in one direction only. The swing
type of reflux valve is widely used in practice.
When the water moves in the direction of arrow, the valve swings or
rotates around the pivot and it is kept in open position due to the
pressure of water. When the flow of water in this direction ceases, the
water tries to flow in a backward direction. But this valve prevents
passage of water in the reverse direction.
Reflux valve is invariably placed in water pipe, which obtain water
directly from pump. When pump fails or stops, the water will not run
back to the pump and thus pumping equipments will be saved from
damage.
CONTROL VALVES

Globe Valve
A Globe valve is a device for
regulating flow in a
pipeline, consisting of a
movable disk- type element
and a stationary ring seat in
a generally spherical body.
 CONTROL
VALVES
Angle Valve/Ball Valve
A ball valve (like the butterfly
valve, one of a family of valves
called quarter turn valves) is a
valve that opens by turning a
handle attached to a ball inside
the valve. The ball has a hole, or
port, through the middle so that
when the port is in line with both
ends of the valve, flow will
occur. When the valve is closed,
the hole is perpendicular to the
ends of the valve, and flow is
blocked. The handle position lets
you "see" the valve's position.
STOP COCKS
It is a valve fitted at the end of communication pipe and it is under the
control of water supply authority. The purpose of stop cock is to stop the
supply of water. Temporary disconnections are made at the stopcock while
permanent disconnections are made at ferrule. The stop cock is as shown
WATER TAPS OR BIB COCKS
These are the water taps which are attached at the end of water
pipes and from which the consumers obtained water. It is operated
from a
handle, the water comes out from the opening. The bibcock may also be
of push type and they operate automatic.
The bibcock should be water tight. The leaky bib cocks are the source
of waste of water.
FERRULE - A valve fixture screwed on the street main and connecting the
communication pipe.
TYPICAL
PLAN AND
SECTION
OF
DOMESTIC
CONNECTI
ON
 FIRE HYDRANTS
A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly in
case of fire. They are located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads and
also at junction roads. They are of two types namely.
1. Flush Hydrants. 2. Post Hydrants
1. Flush Hydrants
The flush hydrants is kept in under ground chamber flush with footpath
covered by C.I. cover carrying a sign board “F-H”
RELIEF VALVES

Also known as automatic

cut off valves or safety
valves. The relief valves
are located at every point
along the water pipe
where pressure is likely
to be maximum. When
pressure of water
exceeds a predetermined
limit, the valve operates
automatically and it will
save a particular section
of water pipe from
bursting.
WATER METER
These are the devices which are installed on the pipes to measure the
quantity of water flowing at a particular point along the pipe. The
readings obtained from the meters help in working out the quantity of water
supplied and thus the consumers can be charged accordingly. The water
meters are usually installed to supply water to industries, hotels, big
institutions etc. metering prevents the wastage of purified water.
FITTINGS

Elbows
FITTINGS

Te
e
FITTINGS

Union/Bushing
FITTINGS

Reducer/Coupling
FITTINGS

Cap/Plug
FITTINGS

Nippl
e
PIPES AND ACCESSORIES
PLUMBING
SYMBOLS
PVC
FITTINGS
GI
FITTINGS
BRASS
FITTINGS
STORAGE OF WATER IN
BUILDINGS
Storage of water may help in meeting static fire demand and to provide uninterrupted
water supply in building in case of main municipal or ground water supply is shut off for
repairs.

Storage may also help to supplement the direct municipal supply in case of excess or
peak demand

Storage of water in buildings are of different types

 Overhead storages
 Underground storages
 Domestic underground storage tanks
 Domestic overhead storage tanks
Overhead storages
When the city water supply is available at sufficient pressure round the
clock, as to rise to the highest floor, then no overhead storage is
required and all the water supply fixtures can be connected with the
direct supply line.
Underground storages

Underground storage tanks are necessarily required to collect water from municipal supply

lines, if the water pressure in the main is insufficient to reach the overhead tanks.

The water collected in the underground tank is then pumped up to the overhead tank.

Direct use of pumps on the municipal mains is always prohibited by the municipal

authorities, as it reduces the water pressure.

Provision should be added for non supply due to power failures or other causes.

For normal building with a dependable water supply, underground storage capacity is taken at

12-24 hours of average daily demand

Domestic underground storage
tanks
Storage tank is made of R.C.C or brick masonry

The tank is to be filled from the municipal supply inlet, and is covered from the top to avoid any
contamination.

The top cover may be provided with a man hole for inspection and cleaning purposes.

Suitable pump is installed to lift the water from this tank and upto the overhead tank.

Care should be taken to construct an underground tank so that

It is water-tight and does not leak when full

It is not located in low lying areas which may permit entry of surface water

It should not be located near sewers, septic tanks, soak pits, oil tanks.

The top slab is designed to carry the load for heavy traffic and fire tenders.
Domestic overhead storage
tanks
Overhead tanks placed on the top of the buildings should be properly located as to safely
transmit their loads to the beams and columns.

Three types of tanks are usually being used

 R.C.C tanks
 G.I tanks
 HDPE tanks

1. R.C.C tanks
🞂 Tanks made from R.C.C can be of any shape size to suit any dimensions
🞂 Brick masonry tanks are used for smaller sizes and R.C.C tanks are used for higher sizes.
Such a tank has to be made water-tight by adding a water proofing compound in the
🞂 concrete and plaster mix.
All inlets and outlets must be inserted at the time of construction.
🞂
2. Metal
tanksMetal tanks fabricated from mild steel or galvanized iron sheets are light, durable and
easy to install

Galvanized iron tanks are made from GI sheets usually 16 or 18 gauge, and fabricated by
using galvanized angle iron for corner supports and the sheets riveted with GI rivets

GI tanks can be made only in smaller sizes (upto 1800 liters) and of non corrosive nature

Metal tanks using Mild steel can be fabricated to any shape and size with suitable
structural supports.

The inside and outside surfaces of such tanks are protected against corrosion by suitable paints
and coatings
3. Plastic
tanks
Plastic tanks are usually made of high density polyethylene (HDPE) or fibre glass
reinforced plastic (FRP) or any such strong plastic materials.

They are usually available in a variety of shapes and sizes and are light and
corrosion resistant.

They are not immune to ultra violet radiation from sunlight , yet they can be
protected by using appropriate resins coverings
PLUMBING SYSTEMS:
There are three system of plumbing systems
SINGLE STACK: In this system, the waste water from bathroom,
kitchen, wash basin, urinals etc and human excreta from water closet is
discharged through a single soil pipe and also this pipe acts as ventilating
pipe. The traps should have water seals at all times at least to a depth of
75mm.
ONE PIPE SYSTEM:
This is same as single stack system but in addition to this there is a
separate vent pipe connected to the fittings and the water seals are
protected. This is costlier than single stack system.
TWO PIPE SYSTEM:
In this system, the soil pipe is connected to all water closets and urinals and
the other waste pipe is connected to bath, kitchen and wash basins etc. Both
soil pipe and water pipes are separately ventilated by vent pipes. This
system provides very effective and trouble free drainage. But this is costly
system.
Cowl -
covering
 Unit 2
Waste Water and Sewage
Disposal
Focus
onWaste water – Write short notes
How is sewage disposed and treated?
What are the sewer line Fixtures?
Warite notes on Traps, Manholes and Septic Tank
 When you flush
Where does the
the toilet where
water from the
does the waste
washer go?
water go?

By gravity flow, the waste is

on its way to your local
wastewater treatment plant!

Where does it all

SEWAGE – DEFINITION
The liquid waste of a household or community including human excreta.
waste matter from domestic or industrial establishments that is carried
away i n sewers or drains.
SEWER, SEWAGE AND SEWERAGE –
SEWARAGE Sewarage refers to the collection of waste water from occupied
areas and conveying them to some point of disposal. The liquid waste usually, will
require treatment before they can be discharged into a body of water or so as not
to endanger the public health or causing offensive conditions. Sewerage
(Sewage) works include all the physical structures required for that collection,
treatment and disposal
SEWAGE Sewage is the liquid waste conveyed by a sewer and may include
domestic and industrial discharges as well as storm sewage, infiltration and
inflow.
SEWER A sewer is a pipe or conduit, generally closed which caries sewage.
SULLAGE – liquid waste from WC, urinal, kitchen
OBJECTS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT
•To reduce sewage strength so that it may not pollute the receiving waters, or
cause sewage sickness to the land
•To remove or kill pathogenic bacteria from sewage so that it can be safely
disposed of without causing any health hazard
SEWAGE
TREATMENT

Primary treatment
Secondary treatment
disinfection
DETRITUS TANKS
BOD = Biochemical oxygen demand
Activated sludge process
Activated sludge indicates the sludge obtained by settling
sewage in presence of abundant oxygen
Activated sludge is biologically active & it contains greater
number of aerobic bacteria which have an unusual property to
oxidise organic matter.
This sludge is mixed with partially treated sewage having sufficient
quantity of oxygen and thus micro organisms in sludge multiply
rapidly
Organic solids present in sewage are rapidly oxidised.
Reuses of waste water

Waste water effluent is re-used for the following purposes.

Agricultural re-uses : crop irrigation.

Industrial re-uses : cooling, cleaning, gardening

Municipal re-uses : street washing, watering for parks.

Re-creational re-uses : fishing, boating, public fountains,

maintenance of wild life and fish ponds.
Overview

Unit functions
Screen chamber It removes floating matter of comparatively large in size like rags,
paper, plastics
Grit chamber It removes grit, sand and such other inorganic matter from sewage
Primary settling It removes organic and inorganic suspended solids settled at bottom
tank
Biological It removes all biodegradable organic matter by converting soluble
treatment unit matter into cell mass which is non-dissolved biofloc
Secondary It removes all settleable biofloc from waste water and make it
clarifier or free from BOD
secondary
settling tank
Sludge digester It degrades all organic matter in sludge
Sludge drying They remove water present in digested sludge and dries it into cake
beds
Principles of general sanitation

For better maintenance and easy repairs, the house sewer pipes should be laid by

the side of the building rather than in walls or underground.

Drains should be laid straight between the manholes (inspection chamber). All

sharp bends and junction which tend to become dead ends for collection of

sewage solids, should be avoided.

The entire system should be properly ventilated.

The house sewer should be connected to the public sewer.

The plumbing system should contain enough number of traps, at suitable

points

for its efficient functioning or to avoid foul smells.

The house sewer should be disconnected from the public sewer by the
provision of an intercepting trap, so as not to allow foul gases from
public sewer to enter the house sewer

Joints of sewer should be water-tight and should be properly checked.

sewers should be laid at sufficient slopes, so as to develop self

cleansing velocities.

The layout of house plumbing system should, as far as possible, be such

as to permit easy cleaning or repair in case of emergency.

High quality sewer pipes should be used in the system

Possibilities of formation of air-locks, siphonage (incase of over flow of

liquid, the provision of another pipe or outlet so as to let excess
overflow), undue deposits, etc., should be studied and remedies should be
accommodated
Trap
s
Traps may be defined as fittings, placed at the ends of the soil pipes or
sullage pipes (waste pipes) to prevent the passage of foul gases from
the pipes to the outside.

This is possible because traps do enclose or maintain water seal between

the pipe and the outside

Qualities

It should provide sufficient water seal with large surface area.

Its interior should be smooth, so as not to obstruct flow, and the trap
should thus be self cleansing.

It should be provided with an access door for cleaning

It should be made of non absorbent material.

 Type
s
Depending upon their shapes
P-trap

Q-trap

S-trap

A trap essentially consists of a U- tube, which retains water acting

as a seal, between the foul gases (inside the pipe) and the outside
atmosphere.

They are largely used for baths, sinks.

In all such needs, they are made with enlarged mouth, so that the
waste pipe may be thoroughly flushed out.
Depending upon their
use
Floor trap

Gully trap

Intercepting trap

Floor trap

These traps are generally used to admit waste water (sullage) from the
floors of rooms, kitchens, baths etc., into the drain (sullage pipe).

These are invariably provided with cast iron or galvanized or stainless

steel gratings at the top, so as to prevent the entry of solid and largely
sticky matter, into the drain pipe, to avoid frequent blockage

A commonly used patented name of such a trap is Nahni trap.

Gully traps

A gully trap forms the starting point of horizontal flow of sewage.

The foul sullage from baths, will enter through the side inlet and the unfoul room washings or rain

water from roof or courtyard will enter from the top.

The rain water pipes discharging into drains, are often connected to them through such traps.

Gully traps may either have a P trap or S-trap. The water seal is usually 50mm to 75mm deep.

Intercepting traps

An intercepting trap is often provided at the junction of a house sewer and a municipal sewer, so as

to prevent the entry of foul gases of municipal sewer.

This trap at such a junction is often provided in a small man-hole constructed near the house, either

outside in the street or a corner.

This trap is provided near its top with an access gate or plug called cleaning eye, for removing silted

matter from inside the trap. It has a high depth of water seal, about 100mm.
Intercepting traps
 Testing of house sewers
Three tests, are commonly performed to test house drains

Air test

Hydraulic or water test

Smoke test

Air test

Air test is used to test underground and vertical pipes.

In this test, drain is plugged at upper and lower ends, and air is forced into the
pipe with the help of pump etc.,

All the joints are coated with soap solution. The escape of air from the leaky
joints will then form bubbles at the joint, which can be visually seen and hence
repaired.
Hydraulic test

This test is most commonly used for under-ground house sewers.

In the test, the drain is plugged at the lower end, and water is filled in the pipe

through the upper end man hole, to maintain a pressure of 1 to 1.5 m depth of water.

If there is found to be no drop in water level in this man hole in 10 minutes time, then
it

can be safely assumed that no joint is leaking.

However if there is some drop in the water head, then the leaking joints have to

be watched visually and repaired

Smoke test

This test is generally performed to detect leakage of existing vertical sullage pipes
or rain

water pipes. In this test, smoke is forced in to the pipe with the help of a blower.

Leakage can be easily detected by seeing or smelling over the emitted smoke at the
Sanitary
fittings
Design requirement

A sanitary appliance should be designed so that its fouling area is reduced to the
minimum and should have durable, easily cleaned and non- absorbent surface

Before starting to design the floor plan of any structure, the designer needs to know
the following information

Type of building:

Residential building

Public building/ commercial/office building

Consumer
WATER CLOSETS:
The water closets
are of following

two types
1. Indian type
water closet
2. European type
water closet
. European type water closet
Water closets
FLUSHING CISTERNS:
In order to flush the water closets and urinals the arrangement
made is called flushing cistern. These are made of cast-iron or
porcelain with a capacity of 5 to 15 litres. It consists of a bell
connected to flushing chain through a lever. When the chain is
pulled, the bell is lifted up and the water in the tank rushes
through the flushing pipe by syphonic action. The floatvalve now
allows the water from the inlet into the cistern and thus the cistern
is ready for next flushing.
FLUSHING CISTERNS:
Septic tanks
A septic tank may be defined as a primary sedimentation tank, with a longer
detention period (12 to 36 hours) and with extra provision for digestion of
the settled sludge.

Moreover, due to anaerobic decomposition of the settled sludge, foul gases will
be evolved in the tank, and a septic tank will be a completely covered tank.
Provided with a high vent shaft for escape of gases.

A septic tank is a horizontal continuous flow type of sedimentation tank,

directly admitting raw sewage and removing about 60 to 70% of the
dissolved matter from it.

The effluent from such a tank will be sufficiently foul in nature and will have to
be disposed of either for sub-surface irrigation or in soak pits or to be treated
in trickling filters.
In order to provide satisfactory disposal of sewage received or
obtained from isolated buildings, small institutions, big hotels,
camps etc or undeveloped areas of the locality where municipal
sewers are not laid, the septic tanks may be adopted.
During the detention period, the sewage is purified and the
effluent is taken to soak pits for disposal. The septic tank is
provided with cover at top for avoiding the bad smells occur
during the digestion period of sludge.
🞂 The sludge settled at the bottom of the tank, and the oils and greasy matter rising to

the top surface of sewage as scum are allowed to remain in tank for a period of

several months, during which they are decomposed by the anaerobic bacteria

to form gases and liquids by the process of sludge digestion.

The digested sludge from the tank is periodically (6 to 12 months) removed,

and taken to nearby sump, from where it may be pumped up to the ground, and

disposed of in a sanitary manner, preferably after drying it.

Septic tanks are generally provided in areas where sewers have not been laid and

for catering to the sanitary disposal of sewage produced from isolated communities,

schools, hospitals, hotels, other public institutions etc.,

Construction details
The septic tanks should be constructed of materials which are resistant to corrosion. The tanks are

constructed water tight.

The construction of septic tanks should be such that direct currents are not established between the

inlet and outlet.

The septic tank should be properly ventilated by the provision of air vent pipes

The top cover of septic tank is usually made of RCC and a manhole is provided in RCC slab for the

purpose of inspection and cleaning of tank.

The sludge is allowed to be accumulated at the bottom of tank and it is removed at intervals either

by manual labour by pumping.

The tank should be filled with water at the time of putting it into working condition. The effluent of

tank should be properly disposed off.

The septic tanks may be constructed in series to act like two-stage sludge digestion tanks. The

septic tanks should be cleaned every 6 to 12 months but should not exceed 3 years.
Design considerations
Capacity of septic tanks: if only water closets are connected to septic tank, the
sewage flow will be about 40-70 litres/capita/day. But when sullage is also
discharged in to the septic tank, the sewage flow may be 90 to 150 litres/capita/day.

Free board : a free-board of about 0.3-0.5m may be provided above the

top sewage line in the tank which will help accommodate the scum in the
tank

Inlet and Outlet baffles : the inlet should penetrate by about 30cm below the
top
sewage line and the outlet should penetrate to about 40% of the depth of
sewage.

Detention period : varies between 12 to 36 hours but commonly adopted as 24

hours

Length to width ratio : septic tanks are usually rectangular with their length
at about 2 to 3 times the width. The width should not be less than 90cm and
Disposal of effluent from septic tank

The effluent coming out from a septic tank is no better than the effluent
of an ordinary sedimentation tank.

It contains large amount of organic matter and its BOD is quite high.
And the methods of disposal of effluent are

Absorption trenches : the trenches should be sufficient in size. At the

bottom of trenches, a layer of broken stones is laid. The effluent of
septic tanks when placed in absorption trenches is absorbed by the
ground.

Gardening : the effluent of septic tank can be used for the purpose
of gardening also. But when this method of disposal is to be adopted,
the possible danger on health of nearby residents should be seriously
considered.
Natural waters : the effluent can be disposed off in natural waters

provided these waters are in sufficient magnitude to dilute the septic

tank effluent.

Soak pits : a soak pit is a hollow circular pit. The total depth of soak
pit varies from 1.2m to 1.8m. The effluent falls in the pit and it is
allowed to be soaked or absorbed into the surrounding soil. The pits
may be kept empty or filled with brick bats or broken stones.

Soak wells : a soak well is similar to a soak pit except that it is large in
size. The depth of a soak well is about 3m. This is the popular method
of disposal of septic tank effluent.
Sub-surface irrigation : this method of disposal of septic tank effluent is

useful when porous soil is available. The effluent is conveyed and discharged

through underground drains with open joints.

Surface irrigation : the effluent of a septic tank has some fertilizing value
and

it may be utilized by diverting it to the sewage farms.

Trickling filters : to improve the quality of effluent of septic tank, it is

sometimes allowed to pass through trickling filters before its final

disposal. The aerobic bacteria act on the effluent and convert it into

harmless liquid. Such effluent can then be directly discharged into natural

waters or can be applied to the land without any serious trouble.

Sewers
Following are the materials used for sewers

1. Asbestos cement sewers : these sewers are made from a mixture of

asbestos fibres and cement which are available in sizes upto 900mm
diameter.

2. Brick sewers : the earliest forms of sewers were made of bricks. At present,
they are not favored mainly because of more labour involved in the construction
of such sewers. If brick sewers are not carefully constructed, they may deform
and leakage may take place.

3. Cast iron sewers : the cast iron sewers possess high strength and durable. They
are however likely to be acted upon by the acids contained in sewage. But if
surfaces of cast iron sewers are coated with paint or cement concrete, they can
resist the actions of acids. They are available in sizes varying from 150mm to
750mm diameter.
7. Steel sewers : the steel sewers are used mainly at places where
imperviousness, lightness and resistance to high pressure where required.
The steel sewers are flexible and they can absorb vibrations and shocks in
a better way. They are generally used for main, outfall and trunk sewers
having diameter exceeds 750mm.

8. Stone ware sewers : the stoneware sewers are also known as the vitrified
clay sewers or salt-glazed sewers and they are prepared from various
clays and shale.

9. Wood sewers : the creosoted wood is not affected by the components of

ordinary sewage. But the sewer is to be constantly kept submerged.
Otherwise the alternate dryness and wetness lead to wet rot. The life
of wood sewers is short and rarely adopted
Shapes of sewers
🞂 Circular shaped sewer

Non – circular shaped sewer

Basket handle shaped

Catenary shaped

Egg shaped

Horse shoe type

Parabolic section

Rectangular

Semi-circular

Semi-elliptical

U - shaped
Surface drains
The surface drains are sometimes constructed to provide a cheap arrangement for collecting
sullage and storm water.

They are less hygienic as they are open and exposed to atmosphere. The surface drains should
fulfill the following requirements

The inner surface of such drains should be made smooth and usually achieved by applying
plaster to the inner surface of drain.

The joints of such drains should be properly and nearly finished

They should be laid at such a gradient that self – cleansing velocity is developed.

They should be laid on curves

They should be properly designed with reasonable provision of free board.

Shapes of surface drains

Rectangular

Semi – circular

🞂 U – shaped
Sewer appurtenances

Following are the important sewer appurtenances

Catch basins
Clean outs
Drop manholes
Flushing tanks
Grease and oil tanks
Inlets
Inverted siphons
Lamp holes
Man holes
🞂Storm water regulators
1. Catch basins : a catch basins is a structure in the form of chamber
which

is provided along the sewer line to admit clear rain water free from silt,

grit, debris etc., into the combined sewer

1. Clean outs : it is an inclined pipe which is connected to the underground sewer.

The other end of the clean-out pipe is brought upto ground level and a cover is

placed at ground level. The working of clean out is simple. The cover is taken

out and water is forced through clean out pipe to the lateral sewers to remove

the obstacles in the sewer

1. Drop man holes : it is used to indicate the man hole on sewer line which is constructed to

provide a connection between the high level branch sewer to the extent of about 500mm

to 600mm above the main sewer.

4. Flushing tanks : it is a device or an arrangement which is made to hold and then
to
throw water into the sewer for the purpose of flushing it
4. Grease and oil traps : these are the traps or chambers which are provided on the sewer
line
to exclude grease and oil from sewage before it enters the sewer line
4. Inverted siphons : an inverted siphon is a sewer section which is constructed lower than
the adjacent sewer sections and which runs full under gravity with pressure greater than
the
atmosphere. The main purpose is to carry sewer line below obstructions such as
streams, rivers, railways
8. Lamphole : a Lamphole is an opening or hole constructed in a sewer
for the purpose of lowering a lamp inside it. It consists of vertical
stoneware or concrete pipe which are connected to the main sewer

9. Manhole : it is defined as the construction made to connect the

ground level with the hole or opening made in the sewer line so that
a man can easily, conveniently and safely enter through it and carry
out the usual maintenance operations.

10. Storm water regulators : the structures constructed to the divert

part of sewage in case of combined sewer are known as storm water
regulators and they come into operation when the discharge
exceeds a certain value.
8. Lamphole : a Lamphole is an opening or hole constructed in a sewer for the purpose
of
lowering a lamp inside it. It consists of vertical stoneware or concrete pipe which are
connected to the main sewer
8. Manhole : it is
defined as the
construction made to
connect the ground
level with the hole or
opening made in the
sewer line so that a
man can easily,
conveniently and
safely enter through
it and carry out the
usual maintenance
operations.
 Unit 3
Storm water disposal and Rainwater Harvesting
Rain water disposal for individual
buildings
Heavy rainfall and long periods of rainfall can lead to
problems with flooding.

To reduce the likelihood of flooding the Building

Regulations require all rainwater from new
developments to be discharged by means other than
mains of drainage.

This can include soak ways, storage tanks or into

watercourses.

The most common form of rainwater disposal is directly

into the ground through soak ways, but storage tanks are
becoming more popular as a form of rainwater harvesting.
Rain Water
Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for
reuse before it reaches the aquifer.

Rainwater harvesting is the process of intercepting storm-water runoff and putting it to

beneficial use.

Rainwater Harvesting is the collection of water that would otherwise have gone down the
drain, into the ground or been lost through evaporation.

Ground water resource gets naturally recharged through percolation. But due to
indiscriminate development and rapid urbainzation, exposed surface for soil has been reduced
drastically with resultant reduction in percolation of rainwater, thereby depleting ground
water resource.
Rainwater harvesting is the process of augmenting the natural filtration of rainwater in to the underground
formation by some artificial methods. "Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to demands of
water, for drinking, domestic purpose & irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting."
Why harvest rainwater
?
This is perhaps one of the most frequently asked question, as to
why one should harvest rainwater. There are many reasons but
following are some of the important ones.

To arrest ground water decline and augment ground water table

To improve water quality in aquifers
To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon
To reduce soil erosion
To inculcate a culture of water conservation
Advantages of rain water harvesting

Rainwater harvesting It provides water when

provides an there is a drought, can help It also helps in the
independent water mitigate flooding of low- availability of potable
supply during regional lying areas, and reduces water as rainwater is
water restrictions and in demand on wells which substantially free of
developed countries is may enable ground water salinity and other salts.
often used to supplement levels to be sustained.
the main supply.
By harvesting and using rainwater
we can:
Increase water availability for on-site vegetation

Reduce on-site flooding and erosion

Reduce water bills and groundwater pumping
Extend the life of landscaping (rainwater is usually
low in salt content and relatively high in nitrogen)
There are generally two methods of harvesting
rainwater-
1.Passive Rainwater
Collection
Passive rainwater collection is the act of slowing down rainwater and letting it
infiltrate on site rather than channelling it into the storm drain system.

A passive system uses earthworks to control surface water flow and uses the soil as the
storage container. Intercepted rainwater can be collected, slowed down and retained or
routed through the site landscape using microbasins, swales and other water harvesting
structures.

Redirecting the roof downspout into a landscaped area is an example of pasive

rainwater harvesting.
Active Rainwater
Collection
Active rainwater collection systems integrate a storage container, a tank or
cistern, into the system to catch rainwater runoff for later use on the property.

These tanks can be installed above or below ground. Above ground systems
usually rely on gravity to disperse the water and serve smaller areas.

The in ground system requires a pump but can provide water throughout the
site.

In either case active systems bring a great advantage -- water can be stored and
used

Active systems are also more complex than passive systems, cost more and
require more maintenance.
System
setup
Rainwater harvesting systems can be installed with
minimal skills.

The system should be sized to meet the water demand

throughout the dry season since it must be big
enough to support daily water consumption.

Specifically, the rainfall capturing area such as a building

roof must be large enough to maintain adequate flow.

The water storage tank size should be large enough to

contain the captured water
 From where to harvest
rain

Rainwater harvesting can be harvested

from the following surfaces

Rooftops: If buildings with impervious roofs are already in place, the

catchment area is effectively available free of charge and they provide a
supply at the point of consumption.

Paved and unpaved areas i.e., landscapes, open fields, parks, storm
water drains, roads and pavements and other open areas can be effectively
used to harvest the runoff. The main advantage in using ground as
collecting surface is that water can be collected from a larger area. This is
particularly advantageous in areas of low rainfall.
 Rainwater Harvesting in Different type of Buildings :

•Normally, debris and dust get deposited on the roof during non-rainy periods.
•When the first rains arrive, this unwanted material will be washed into the

storage tank.
•This may cause contamination of water collected in the storage tank thereby

rendering it unfit for drinking and cooking purposes.

•Therefore, a first flush system can be incorporated in the Roof top Rainwater

Harvesting Systems (RRHS) to dispose of the first flush so that it does not enter the
tank.
There are two such simple systems. – FIRST FLUSH
•One is based on a simple manually operated arrangement whereby, the down

pipe is moved away from the tank inlet and replaced again once the first flush water
has been disposed.
•In another simple and semi automatic system, separate vertical pipe is fixed to the

down pipe with a valve provided below the T junction.

•After the first rain is washed out through the first flush pipe the valve is closed to allow

the water to enter the down pipe and reach the storage tank.

1) Sloping roofs

•Roofs made of corrugated iron sheet, asbestos sheet or tiles can be utilized for

harvesting the rainwater.

•Gutters and channels can be fixed on the edges of roof all around to collect and

transport the rain water from the roof to the storage tank.
•Gutters can be prepared in semi-circular and rectangular shapes.
•Locally available material such as plain Galvanized Iron sheets can be easily folded

to required shapes to prepare semi-circular and rectangular gutters.

•Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be readily prepared by cutting the PVC pipes

into two equal semi-circular channels.

•Bamboo poles can also be used for making gutters if they are locally available in

sufficient quantity.
•Use of such locally available materials reduce the overall cost of the system.

For Thatched Roofs : Step by step approach

•If the roof is thatched, polythene sheets can be used for collecting the rainwater
•The collected rainwater is filtered through a filter filled with pebbles in the bottom and

coarse sand on the top

• The filtered water is collected either in storage tank of existing sump and the
overflow water may be diverted to percolation pit nearby.

•For Sloping / Tiled Roofs : Step by step approach :

•In a slopped/tiled house the rainwater from the roof is collected through the gutter in the

roof.
•The collected water is filtered through a filter filled with pebbles in the bottom and

coarse sand on the top.

•The filtered water is collected either in a storage tank or existing sump.
•Over flow water may be diverted to an existing open well / bore well or

percolation pit.
For common houses with RCC roof : Step by Step approach
•In houses with flat roofs the rain water may be collected to the half cut PVC pipes fitted

along the sloping sides and it may be directed to either sump/open well/bore well or
recharge well.
•Check weather the rain water drain pipes extend up to the bottom of the building.

Interconnect the rainwater drainpipes if there exist more than one.

•The bottom half of the filter chamber has to The inlet rainwater drain pipe should
be filled either with broken bricks/ blue
metal /pebbles and followed by one feet of be on the top of the filter chamber and
coarse river sand. the outlet pipe connecting the filter
•A nylon mesh has to be provided in
between the two layers. chamber to the sump should be at the
•The top portion of the filter chamber
bottom.
should be covered with RCC slab.
Surplus spill over water from the sump In the absence of sump , filter
may be connected with the existing open champers may be connected to the
well/ borewell or to the recharge well. existing open well / borewell.
In the absence of sump, open well and bore well the rain water may be

recharged through percolation pits and the bottom of pit should be in the sandy
formation.
Basic principles of water harvesting
Both large and small scale water harvesting techniques follow the same
principles to create the most effective ways of capturing water.
Start with observing the site
Start with careful observations of where the water flows, how the water
flows, and what is already working on the site. This will save large
amounts of time and effort when installing harvesting techniques.
Start at the top
Allow gravity to assist in water harvesting. Begin by working on the
highest area of the site. (This may be the roof of a house.) By doing this,
the water is controlled before it can gain speed and volume.
Keep it simple
Install techniques that can be done by hand, and can be easily fixed if
damaged. Installing numerous small harvesting techniques rather than one
big project allows for better infiltration of the water.
Slower is better
Try to slow the flow of water as much as possible and spread it across
the site, rather than allowing the water to run off the site.

The more the better

In locations where abundant water can flow, plan an overflow route. The
overflow water should be harvested, rather than directed off the site. A
series of check dams and basins is an effective way to manage overflow.
Green is good
Try to maximize the ground cover by adding plants to the site. Plant
roots loosen the soil and allow easier infiltration of water into the soil.
With a little time and effort, any site can be transformed into
sustainable oasis using these principles. It is important to remember that
rainwater harvesting on a site is never finished and can always be
improved.
· Drainage- Sub- drains,
Culverts, Ditches,
Gutters, Drop inlets and
Catch Basins
.
STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

A storm drain is defined as that portion of the storm drainage system that receives
runoff from inlets and conveys the runoff to some point where it is
then discharged into a channel, water body, or piped system.

It consists of one or more pipes connecting one or more inlets. A storm drain
may be a closed-conduit, open-conduit, or some combination of the
two.

The terminology "storm sewer" which has been in general use for
many years, is gradually being replaced with the term "storm drain"
to differentiate between sanitary sewers and storm drains. Storm drain
will be used throughout this manual.
The purpose of a storm drain is to collect storm water runoff from the roadway and
convey it to an outfall. Storm drain design generally consists of three major parts:

system planning which includes

that
gathering and outfall location;

pavement drainage which includes

pavement geometries and inlet spacing;

location and sizing of the mains and

manholes.
Requirement for the storm water
drainage
Storm drain systems should have adequate capacity so that they can accommodate
runoff that enters the system for the design frequency

Storm drain systems should be designed with future development in mind if it

is appropriate.

should have a greater level of flood protection to decrease the depth of

ponding
on the roadway and bridges.

The recommended minimum distance is 10 feet when the storm drain

system is parallel to the waterline and 1foot when the storm drain system
crosses a waterline.

Attention shall be given to the storm drain outfall design to insure that the potential for
culvert
s
A culvert is a drainage pipe used to convey a stream through a road or
embankment or may carry a stream for a long distance underground to a
surface discharge location.

Bottomless Culvert Corrugated Metal

Arch Pipe (CMP)
 Driveway Culvert

Corrugated Aluminum
Pipe Arch (CAPA)
Culverts are generally short
in length and open at both
ends and often must
withstand substantial
traffic loads
ditches
Ditches are constructed to convey water from storm runoff to an
adequate outlet.

A good ditch is shaped and lined using the appropriate material

and does not cause flooding, erosion, or sedimentation.
Types of
ditches
COMMON DITCHs SHAPE
EXAMPLES

U-Shaped Ditch

Rounded V-Shaped Ditch

 gutte
rThat portion of the roadway section adjacent to the curb
which is utilized to convey stormwater runoff.
Rain gutter, a narrow trough or duct which collects rainwater from the
roof of a building and diverts it away from the structure, typically into a
drain.

Street gutter, a depression which runs

alongside a city street, usually at the curb
and diverts rain water into a storm drain
  A curb and gutter forms a triangular
Channel that can be an effective hydraulic
conveyance facility which can convey runoff

Rain
gutter

The gutter also helps reduce erosion,

prevents leaks in basements and protects
painted or stained surfaces by reducing
Street gutter exposure to water, and provides a means
to collect rainwater for later use.
Drop inlets
 A location where storm water runoff from an
open area enters the storm drain system.
 Drop inlets are usually part of the public drainage system,
but can sometimes be considered private.
 Inlet
24”x24”
Yard drain

Inlet(multiple grate)
In driveways &parking
 UNIT 4
SOLID WASTE, COLLECTIONS, TREATMENTS, DISPOSAL, MODERN
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
WASTE AND ITS CATEGORY

Waste (also known as rubbish, trash, refuse, garbage,

junk, litter) is unwanted or useless materials.
In biology, waste is any of the many unwanted substances or
toxins that are expelled from living organisms, metabolic waste;
such as urea, sweat or faeces. Litter is waste which has been
disposed of improperly.
Waste is directly linked to human development, both
technologically and socially. The compositions of
different wastes have varied over time and location, with
industrial development and innovation being directly linked
to waste materials.
An Examples of this include plastics and nuclear technology. Some
components of waste have economical value and can be recycled
once correctly recovered.
There are many waste types defined by modern systems of waste
management, notably including:
Municipal Waste includes household waste, commercial waste,
demolition waste
Hazardous Waste includes Industrial waste
Bio-medical Waste includes clinical waste
Special Hazardous waste includes radioactive waste, Explosives
waste, E-waste
Collection of Solid Waste
To prohibit littering and to facilitate compliance, municipal authorities must take the
following steps:
Organize collection of MSW (municipal solid waste) at household level by using
methods such as door-to-door, house-to-house, or community bin service.
Collection must be on a regular pre informed schedule or by announcement
Give special consideration to devising waste collection in slums areas, as well as to
commercial areas such hotels, restaurants, and office complexes.
Segregate at the source all recyclable waste, as well as biomedical waste and industrial
waste, to prevent special waste from being mixed with ordinary municipal solid waste.
Collect separately all horticultural waste and construction or demolition waste or debris, and
dispose of it following proper norms.
Prohibit burning of waste.
Do not permit stray animals at waste storage facilities.
Secondary Storage of Waste
With respect to secondary storage of waste, municipal authorities must do the following:
Make available sufficient storage facilities in accordance to the quantities of waste
generated.
Provide covered storage facility so that waste is not exposed to open atmosphere.
Ensure that storage facilities are attended daily and are emptied and cleaned regularly.
Ensure that storage facilities or bins are of an appropriate design for ease in handling,
transfer, and transport.
Ensure that manual handling and multiple handling of waste are avoided or are done with
proper safety and care.
Transport of Waste
The following rules apply to transport of waste:
Ensure that vehicles used for transport of waste are
covered.
Ensure that waste is not visible to public or exposed to the
open environment, thus preventing the scattering of waste.
Attend to storage facilities daily for clearing of waste.
Empty bins or containers before they start overflowing.
Ensure that transport vehicles are designed so that
multiple handling of waste is avoided before final disposal.
Waste Treatment
Waste treatment rules are as follows:
Ensure that biodegradable waste is processed by
composting, vermicomposting, anaerobic digestion, or any
other appropriate biological process for stabilizing waste.
Ensure that mixed waste containing recoverable resources
follows the route of recycling. Incineration with or without
energy recovery may be used in special cases.
Waste Disposal
• Sanitary land filling
• Open dumping
Patterns of refuse collection

Depending upon the area to be drained, topographical and

hydraulic features of the area, location of various factors, any one
or combination of more than one of the following patterns of
collection system is adopted
 Fan pattern
 Interceptor pattern
 Perpendicular pattern
 Radial pattern
 Zonal pattern
Fan pattern
In this system of layout, the treatment plant is located at a certain point and the entire sewage
flow is directed towards this point.

Thus a fan like network of converging main sewers is laid in this pattern.

The advantages of this pattern is that only one unit of treatment plant will be required.

Two disadvantages are

The diameter of main truck sewers will be more and it may result in
increase of cost of laying such sewers

The development of the surrounding area will increase the load on

treatment plant and hence restriction will have to be imposed on
such development
Interceptor pattern

In this pattern, the sewers are intercepted by large size sewers which are laid along the
water course.

The sewage is carried to the treatment plant and depending upon the facilities provided, it
is disposed off either with or without treatment.

If the quantity of storm water is more, the storm regulators may be provided at suitable
points.

Perpendicular pattern

In this pattern, main trunk sewers are laid perpendicular to the natural water courses and
thus of shorter length.

This pattern proves useful for separate or partially separate system in which case storm
water can be disposed off directly without treatment.

This pattern will be impracticable for combined system as it will require a treatment unit at
every point of outlet.
Radial pattern

🞂 In this pattern, the sewers are laid radially outwards from the centre of the city.

This pattern is useful for cities where the facilities of sewage disposal by land
treatment are available.

The suburbs can be served economically by small and short lines of sewers.

But this pattern will require large number of disposal works.

Zonal pattern

In this pattern, the city is divided into suitable zones and a separate
interceptor
is provided for each one.

This pattern proves to be economical for cities which are situated on sloping
hills.
Sludge disposal
The suspended solids which accumulate at the bottom of

clarifiers or settling tank which is known as sludge

The sludge has an objectionable odour and it has got the power of

pollution.

It is bulky and contains large amount of water

Why do we treat sludge?

All methods of sewage treatment generate organic sludge (or ‘biosolids’) as

by-products and these must be managed separately from the liquid
sewage .Raw (untreated) sludge have a very high oxygen demand and must
not be allowed to enter the water environment.
There is, therefore, a need to deal with them in a way that permits their
ultimate disposal in an environmentally acceptable and sustainable manner.
The sludge ‘route’ selected for a given sewage treatment works will depend
on several factors including its location, the availability of suitable farm
land, the characteristics of the sludge and the overall cost.
What does a typical sludge contain?

Sludge produced by sewage treatment are organic in nature and

contain useful amounts of plant nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, etc.,
In their initial form, most raw (untreated) sludge have a high water
content (96-99%), are rotten and have an offensive odor. They will also
contain a variety of human and animal pathogen.
Various forms of treatment may be used to achieve volume
reduction by removing some of the water content. Odor and
pathogen reduction is achieved by stabilization and disinfection
processes. In recent years, the control of odor emissions to the
atmosphere has become an important requirement of sludge
treatment.
Methods of sludge disposal

Disposal on land

Drying on drying beds

Heat drying

Incineration

Digestion followed by drying

AEROBIC DIGESION FOR
COMPOST
Advantage
s Reduces volume and mass of sludge
Reduces pathogens
Lower capital investment
Simpler to operate
SANITARY LAND FILLING
A sanitary landfill is a waste disposal facility where layers of compacted
garbage are covered with layers of earth. When the facility reaches
capacity, a cap is applied to close the site. Sanitary landfills are one of
the most popular methods for disposing of waste, although they have some
distinct drawbacks. This technique for waste management was
developed in the 1930s, in response to growing pressures created by a
growing population.
The site for a sanitary landfill needs to be selected with care. Ideally, it
should be located above the water table, in an area which is not
geologically active. Other considerations may have to do with aesthetics;
because landfills can be odorous at times, they are generally not located in
immediate proximity to residential communities. The land also must be
inexpensive to make the cost of operating the landfill worth it, and it must
be accessible to roads so that garbage can be easily delivered.
INCINERATION
The term incinerate means to burn something until nothing is left but ashes. An
incinerator is a unit or facility used to burn trash. An incinerator is
constructed of heavy, well-insulated materials, so that it does not give off extreme
amounts of external heat. The high levels of heat are kept inside the furnace or
unit so that the waste is burned quickly and efficiently. If the heat were allowed to
escape, the waste would not burn as completely or as rapidly.
One function of an incinerator is to dispose of trash or waste effectively, eliminating
the high cost of having waste deposited elsewhere, such as piling even more rubbish
atop existing landfills. Incinerators also serve to keep dangerous materials from
finding their way to landfills where they can harm people, including those that
work in such facilities. Another benefit is the fact that an incinerator can produce
power in the process of waste burning, though not all incinerators harness that
power.
Since not only power but also smog and air pollution are byproducts of
incineration, some people feel that an incinerator is a poor alternative to other waste
disposal methods. They believe it is simply a trade off, exchanging land waste for
smog. However, an incinerator can dispose of an incredible amount of solid waste
when utilized properly, which proves to many people that it is the most efficient
waste disposal process.
 Incineration

The following are the two types of incinerators used

for treatment of hazardous liquid and solid waste are

Liquid waste incinerators

Rotary klin type incinerators
Liquid waste incinerators
They are used for burning liquid wastes.

Such an incineration system will involve injecting the liquid waste

through an atomizing nozzle into the combustion chamber (furnace).

The liquid waste, passing through nozzle, ejects in the form of fine
droplets, which volatilizes in the hot gas stream, oxidizing the
gas.

Efficient destruction of liquid hazardous waste require minimizing

unevaporated droplets and unreached vapour.

The liquid flow injection may be horizontal, vertical or tangential

in
different incinerator design.
Rotary kiln incinerators

They can be used to burn solid, liquid, gaseous and sludge waste.

These are used for destruction of non-liquid hazardous wastes

The waste is deposited in the kiln at one end, and the waste burns out to
ash by the time it reaches the other end.

The entire system assembly consists of a waste feed and air injection,
the kiln itself, an afterburner (a secondary combustion chamber), and an
ash collection system.

The gas discharge from the afterburner is directed to an air emission

control system, to reduce air pollution impacts.
VERMICULTURE
Vermiculture or worm farming is the science of raising and managing
worms. This activity is practiced on a large-scale commercial level as well
as in private homes and vermiculturing supplies are available at some
garden supply stores.
People have been encouraging and cultivating worms for centuries to
improve soils. Worm composting involves using worms to break down
organic materials to create a nutrient-rich compost which can be used as
a soil amendment. When done in a bin designed to collect water, worm
composting also generates compost tea, a nutritious fluid which can be
used to fertilize house plants and plants in the garden. Worms are also
good for general garden soils, as they promote soil aeration and leave
nutritious castings behind, and gardeners may add worms directly to their
soils to improve them.
Some waste management companies may actively encourage
vermicomposting as a way to keep organic materials out of the waste
stream, thereby cutting down on the amount of garbage which needs to be
land filled.
ANAEROBIC DIGESION FOR ENERGY AND ORGANIC FILTER( BIO
MASS)
A biogas plant is an anaerobic digester that produces biogas from animal wastes or
energy crops. Energy crops are cheap crops grown for the purpose of biofuels,
rather than food. Biofuels are liquid, gaseous, or solid fuel made from live or
recently dead organic material known as biomass, as opposed to fossil fuels, which
are composed of ancient biological materials. Biogas is a type of biofuel created
via anaerobic, or oxygen-free, digestion of organic matter by bacteria. A biogas
plant is composed of a digester and a gas holder.
The digester is an airtight container in which the waste is dumped and decomposed,
and the gas holder is a tank that harnesses the gases emitted by the slurry. Bacteria
within the digester tank breaks down the waste and, as it decomposes, gases such as
carbon monoxide, methane, hydrogen, and nitrogen, are released. Through a
pressurized system, the gas holder conducts the flow of these gases upward into a
hole in its drum. The hole is specially designed to allow gases to pass freely
into the holder while prohibiting any gases from escaping back into the digester. In
a controlled environment, the gases are later combusted, or reacted, with oxygen
to create an energy source for such processes as heating and vehicle propulsion.
biogas plant
 Necessity of pumping stations
Sewage may have to be lifted by pumps under the following

circumstances

The sewage from localized low lying pockets in a city has to be

pumped, so as to throw it up into the city’s sewer pipes flowing under

gravity and running at higher elevations.

When the area is flat, the laying of sewers at their designed gradients

may involve deeper and deeper excavations in the forward direction

of flow. In such circumstances, it may be to lift the sewage at suitable

intervals and then to lay sewers at reasonable depth

 For disposing of the sewage of the basements of large commercial

buildings, sewage may have to be pumped, as the street sewer may

be higher than the level of basement floor

When the outfall sewer is lower than the level of treatment plant, the

sewage will have to be pumped up. Similarly, when the level of the

treated sewage coming out from the treatment is lower than the level

of the source of its disposal, it will have to be pumped before it can

be disposed of.
Types of pumps
It can be easily stated that the most important characteristic of a sewage
pump is its ability to operate without clogging.

various types of pumps that are commonly employed for pumping

sewage
are

Centrifugal pumps

Reciprocating pumps

Pneumatic ejectors or air pressure pumps

AIR LIFT PUMP
Air from compressor is
released through an air

diffuser. This air rises in

bubbles in ejector pipe and
forms a mixture of air
and water.
This mixture ahs low
specific gravity than that
of water and consequently
the pressure on eductor
pipe is less than pressure
in casing pipe
This pressure difference
causes the water to raise
and come out through
outlet
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS – COMPONENTS
Centrifugal force is made use of in lifting water . Electrical energy is converted to
potential or pressure energy of water.
COMPONENT PARTS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

1. CASING: The impellor is enclosed in the casing, which is so designed that kinetic
energy of the liquid is converted into pressure energy before it leaves the casing.
2. Delivery pipe 3. Delivery valve 4. Impeller 5. Prime mover 6. Suction pipe 7. Strainer
and foot valve
DESCRIPTION
The pump consists of a Impeller is enclosed in a water tight casing. Water at lower
level is sucked into the impellor through a suction pipe. Suction pipe should be air tight
and bends in this pipe should be avoided. A strainer foot valve is connected at the bottom
of the suction pipe to prevent entry of foreign matter and to hold water during pumping
. Suction pipe is kept larger in diameter than delivery pipe to reduce cavitations and
losses due to friction.
An electric motor is coupled to the central shaft to impart energy.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
When the impellor starts rotating it creates reduction of pressure at the eye of the
impellor, which sucks in water through the suction pipe. Water on entering the eye is
caught between the vanes of the impeller. Rapid rotation of the impellor sets up a
centrifugal force and forces the water at high velocity outwards against the causing
 Centrifugal pumps

🞂 Centrifugal pumps are most widely used for

lifting sewage, as they can be easily installed
in pits and sumps, and can easily transport the
suspended matter without getting clogged.

The horizontal axis flow type of centrifugal

pumps are used and are provided with either
open or closed three vane type impellers

The clearance between the vanes are kept large

enough so as to allow any solid matters entering
the pump to pass out with the liquid sewage.

This helps in preventing the clogging of pumps

and damage to the motor. Such pumps are
called non-clog pumps
In another type, the solid matters present in sewage are broken up as they
pass through the pump impeller. Such pumps are called disintegrating
pumps.

They are used when sewage is to be directly disposed of into the sea through
the
outfall sewer.

Both the types of pumps work at low efficiency but their use avoids the
necessity of
installing pre-screens for grit removal before pumping.

The centrifugal pumps may be installed either submerged beneath the sewage in the
wet well, the pump is set with a vertical shaft reaching to the motor placed above
the sewage level in a dry space, the pump being always submerged called
submergible pump

The pump is set in a dry well and sucks its inlet supplies through the suction
pipe from an adjacent well containing sewage
DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
In this type, a vacuum is created in a chamber by some
mechanical means and then water is drawn into this chamber. The
volume of water thus drawn in this chamber is then shifted or
displaced mechanically out of chamber. The displacement pumps
are of two types
Reciprocating pumps
Rotary pumps
Reciprocating pumps

Reciprocating pumps are not widely used

because of their high initial cost, difficulty

in maintenance and greater wear and tear.

Reciprocating pumps used for pumping sewage

are generally of two types

 Ram type

 Propeller type
Ram type

In the ram type, a piston or plunger moves inside a closed cylinder.

On the intake stroke, the liquid enters the cylinder through the

intake suction valve

The delivery valve remaining close during intake stroke.

On the discharge stroke , the suction valve closes and the liquid is

forced into the delivery pipe through the delivery valve, when opens

during the discharge valve

Eg : Diaphragm pump
Rotary pumps These pumps operate by having a rotating member turn in
such a way as to create trapped liquid through the pump. Figure shows
several configurations of rotary pumps.
When compared to reciprocating pumps, rotary pumps require
less space, and deliver free flow. Their main advantage is that its
rate of flow is uniform, steady and constant. It is possible to use this pump
with high speed  small size rotary pump possess high capacity.
Their disadvantages are that they have close clearances that require
that the liquids being pumped be non-corrosive, and contain few solids.
Therefore, they tend to be limited to relatively solids-free liquid.
Rotary pumps present a few advantages over their
centrifugal cousins. These advantages include:
Flow is independent of pressure. You can change the flow without
upsetting the pump's efficiency.
The pump can handle high viscosity ( thick and sticky) fluids
efficiently.
You get a smooth pulse free flow of the liquid into the system.
 Pneumatic ejectors
Pneumatic ejectors are sometimes called air ejectors or
air pressure pumps are used for pumping smaller
quantities of waste waters, such as for raising waste
waters from the basements of buildings and discharging
it into street sewers
A pneumatic ejectors consists of an air-tight tank
into which the waste water flows by gravity and out
of which, the waste was forced automatically
whenever sufficient waste water has accumulated.
Pumping station

The building where pumps and other accessories are installed for lifting sewage is

called sewage pumping station

Location

These pumping stations preferably located near natural deposit unit such

as streams, lake, river etc., so that in case of break-down of pumping , the

accumulated sewage can overflow into this natural source of disposal

But at the same time the site should be such that it is not liable to get flooded

either due to seepage from the adjoining river stream or due to high floods in that

river stream.
 Component parts

Grit channel
Coarse and fine screens
Wet well or sump well
pump room
Motor room
Rising mains
Emergency exit pipe
Other accessories like starters, valves, flow recorders
etc.,
 Wet well or sump well
The purpose of providing a sump well is to form a suction pit from which the
pump may draw sewage through the suction pipe.

It also acts as an equalizing basin to minimize the load fluctuations on the

pump.

A float connected to a switch is provided in this sump well in such a way that
when the sewage rises above the float level, the switch gets pressed and
pump automatically starts functioning, thus pumping sewage.

The floor of the bottom slope is 1:1 or steeper which will help in pushing the
sludge into the low point, where the inlet of the suction pipe is located.
pump room

In this room, pumps are installed, and the end of their suction pipe
is placed in the suction pit or wet well.

The general layout of a pump room should be carefully made and

it may include a repair workshop, office and store room etc.,

Enough provision for its possible future extension may also be

made.

The number and sizes of pumps required should be carefully

worked out, and depends upon the quantity of sewage likely to
enter into the station.
Motor room
This room is situated above the pump room and accommodates
the electric room which drives the pumps.

The other appurtenances like automatic starters, flow recorders etc.,

are also installed in this room.

Rising mains
The sewage after being pumped is taken to high leveled gravity
sewer through rising mains.

The rising mains may be of cast iron or asbestos cement pressure

pipes.

To avoid siltation, the velocity of flow in the rising main should not
be
less than 0.75m/sec at any time of flow
Emergency exit pipe
An emergency exit pipe connecting the sump well with a
natural stream or river, is preferably provided at all major
pumping stations.
Hence when the sump well overflows due to any reason, the
excess sewage can be easily directed through this exit pipe.

Other accessories
Various accessories such as automatic starters, check valves,
flow recorders etc., are needed and installed suitably in the
pumping stations.
General factor to be considered while selecting a pump
Capacity of pump
No of pump units required
Suction conditions
Discharge Conditions
Floor space requirement
Flexibility of operation
Initial cost and running costs
Reciprocating pumps are more suitable for lifting relatively clean water.
DRY WELL
A dry well is an underground structure that disposes of unwanted water,
most commonly stormwater runoff, by dissipating it into the ground,
where it merges with the local groundwater. Often called a soak way.
A dry well is a passive structure. Water flows through it under the influence
of gravity. A dry well receives water from one or more entry pipes or
channels at its top. A dry well discharges the same water through a number
of small exit openings distributed over a larger surface area, the side(s) and
bottom of the dry well. Some dry wells deliberately incorporate a large
storage capacity, so that they can accept a large amount of water very
quickly and then dissipate it gradually over time.
Simple dry wells consist of a pit filled with gravel, riprap, rubble, or other
debris. A more advanced dry well defines a large interior storage volume by a
reinforced concrete cylinder with perforated sides and bottom.