RT 307 RADIATION

THERAPY
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
• Discovery of X-ray
• November 8,1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
 The first patient was treated with radiation in 1896, two months after
the discovery of the X-ray.
 Back then, both doctors and non-physicians treated cancer patients
with radiation.
 Rapid technology advances began in the early 1950s with cobalt
units followed by linear accelerators a few years later.
 Recent technology advances have made radiation more effective
and precise.
 Radiation Therapy

2/20/23
 Introduction to Radiation Oncology
 Radiation has been an
effective tool for treating
cancer for more than 100
years.
 Radiation oncologists are
doctors trained to use
radiation to eradicate cancer.
 About two-thirds of all
cancer patients will receive
radiation therapy as part of
their treatment.

2/20/23
  Radiation therapy works by damaging the
DNA within cancer cells and destroying their
ability to reproduce.
 When the damaged cancer cells are
destroyed by radiation, the body naturally
eliminates them.
 Normal cells can be affected by radiation, but
they are able to repair themselves.
 Sometimes radiation therapy is the only
treatment a patient needs.
 Other times, it is combined with other
treatments, like surgery and chemotherapy.

2/20/23
 Methods of Delivering Radiation Therapy

Early 1950s Today

2/20/23
 Radiation therapy is used two
different ways.
 To cure cancer:
• Destroy tumors that have not spread
to other body parts.
• Reduce the risk that cancer will return
after surgery or chemotherapy.
 To reduce symptoms:
• Shrink tumors affecting quality of life,
like a lung tumor that is causing
shortness of breath.
• Alleviate pain by reducing the size of
a tumor.
2/20/23
 Meet the Radiation Oncology Team
 Radiation Oncologist
• The doctor who oversees the radiation
therapy treatments.
 Medical Radiation Physicist
• Ensures that complex treatment plans are
properly tailored for each patient.
 Dosimetrist
• Works with the radiation oncologist and
medical physicist to calculate the proper
dose of radiation given to the tumor.
 Radiation Therapist
• Administers the daily radiation under the
doctor’s prescription and supervision.
 Radiation Oncology Nurse
• Cares for the patient and family by providing
education, emotional support and tips for
managing side effects.

2/20/23
 Types of Radiation Therapy
 Radiation therapy can be delivered
two ways – externally and
internally.
• External beam radiation therapy
delivers radiation using a linear
accelerator.
• Internal radiation therapy, called
brachytherapy or seed implants,
involves placing radioactive sources
inside the patient.
 The type of treatment used will
depend on the location, size and
type of cancer.
2/20/23
 Planning Radiation Therapy - Simulation

 Each treatment is
mapped out in detail
using treatment planning
software.
 Radiation therapy must
be aimed at the same
target every time. Doctors
use several devices to do
this:
• Skin markings or tattoos.
• Immobilization devices –
casts, molds, headrests.

2/20/23
 External Radiation Therapy

 Specialized types of external beam

radiation therapy
• Three-dimensional conformal radiation
therapy (3D-CRT)
 Uses CT or MRI scans to create a
3-D picture of the tumor.
 Beams are precisely directed to avoid
radiating normal tissue.
• Intensity modulated radiation therapy
(IMRT)
 A specialized form of 3D-CRT.
 Radiation is broken into many “beamlets”
and the intensity of each can be adjusted
individually.

2/20/23
 External Radiation Therapy

• Proton Beam Therapy

 Uses protons rather than X-rays to treat certain
types of cancer.
 Allows doctors to better focus the dose on the
tumor with the potential to reduce the dose to
nearby healthy tissue.
• Neutron Beam Therapy
 A specialized form of radiation therapy that can be
used to treat certain tumors that are very difficult to
kill using conventional radiation therapy.
• Stereotactic Radiotherapy
 Sometimes called stereotactic radiosurgery, this
technique allows the radiation oncologist to
precisely focus beams of radiation to destroy
certain tumors, sometimes in only one treatment.

2/20/23
 Internal Radiation Therapy

 Places radioactive material into

tumor or surrounding tissue.
• Also called brachytherapy – brachy
Greek for “short distance.”
• Radiation sources placed close to the
tumor so large doses can hit the
cancer cells.
• Allows minimal radiation exposure to
normal tissue.
• Radioactive sources used are thin
wires, ribbons, capsules or seeds.
• These can be either permanently or
temporarily placed in the body.

2/20/23
 Side Effects of Radiation Therapy
 Side effects, like skin
tenderness, are generally
limited to the area receiving
radiation.
 Unlike chemotherapy,
radiation usually doesn’t
cause hair loss or nausea.
 Most side effects begin
during the second or third
week of treatment.
 Side effects may last for
several weeks after the final
treatment.
2/20/23
  Many advances have been made in
the field to ensure it remains safe
and effective.
 Multiple healthcare professionals
develop and review the treatment
plan to ensure that the target area
is receiving the dose of radiation
needed.
 The treatment plan and equipment
are constantly checked to ensure
proper treatment is being given.

2/20/23
ATOM AND RADIOACTIVITY
ATOM

 From the Greek word [a(not), temon(cut)] or “indivisible” to

describe the smallest part of the four substances of matter.

 Each type of atom was represented by a symbol.

 Particles that are smaller than atom are called sub-atomic

particles.
• John Dalton (1808) – English school teacher
• showed that the elements could be classified according to integral values of atomic mass.
• an element was composed of identical atoms that reacted the same way chemically.
• 
• Dmitri Mendeleev – Russian scholar
• First periodic table of elements.
• Father of Modern Periodic Table of Elements
• Categorize in groups.
• Alkali Metals – are all soft metals that combine readily with oxygen and react violently with water.
• Halogens – are easily vaporized and combine with metals to form water – soluble salts.
• Noble Gases – are highly resistant to reaction with other elements.
• J.J. Thomson (1890’s)
• concluded that electrons were an integral part of all atoms while investigating the physical properties
of cathode rays.
• described the atom as looking something like a plum pudding, where the plums represented negative
electric charges (electrons) and the pudding was a shapeless mass of uniform positive electrification.
• Ernest Rutherford (1911)
• Disproved Thomson’s model of the atom.
• Introduced the nuclear model, which described the atom as containing a small, dense, positively
charged center surrounded by a negatively cloud of electrons.
• called the center of the atom the nucleus.
• Niels Bohr (1913)
• Improved Rutherford’s description of the atom.
• His model was a miniature solar system in which electrons revolved about the nucleus in prescribed
orbits or energy levels
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

• The fundamental particles of the atoms are electrons, protons, and

neutron.
• Nucleons are the protons and neutrons which are composed of
quarks that are held together by gluons.
• Atoms can be viewed as a miniature solar system whose sun is the
nucleus and whose planets are the electrons.
 Their mass is 1.675 x 10-27kg

•Atomic Mass Unit (amu) – the mass of a neutral atom of an element, expressed as 1/12th
the mass of carbon, which has an arbitrarily assigned value of 12.
•Atomic Mass Number – a system of a whole number. It is the number of protons plus the
number of neutrons in the nucleus.
•Electrons
Which are the very small particles carrying one unit of negative electric charge.
Their mass is only 9.1 x 10-31kg.
•Protons
Carries one unit of positive electric charge.
The mass is 1.673 x 10-27kg.
•Neutrons
Carries no charge or it is electrically neutral.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC OF THE FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

MASS PARTICLES

ELECTRON PROTON NEUTRON

LOCATION SHELLS NUCLEUS NUCLEUS

RELATIVE 1 1836 1838

KILOGRAMS 9.109 X 1.673 X 1.675 X

ATOMIC MASS UNIT 0.000549 1.00728 1.00867

NUMBER 0 1 1

CHARGE -1 +1 0

SYMBOL e p n
 • ATOMIC STRUCTURES
• The atom is essentially empty space.
• The nucleus of an atom is very small but contains nearly all the mass
of the atom.
• Electron orbits are grouped into different “shells”. The arrangement of
these shells helps determine how an atom reacts chemically, that is,
how it combines with other atoms to form molecules.
• The neutral atom has the same number of electrons in orbits as
protons in the nucleus; the number of protons ultimately determines
the chemical behavior of an atom.
• The number of protons determines the chemical elements.
• Isotopes – atoms that have the same number of protons but differ in the number of
neutrons and behave in the same way in chemical reaction.
• Electrons can exist only in certain shells, which represent different electron binding energies
or energy levels.
• The electron orbital shells are given the code K, L, M, N and so forth to represent the
relative binding energies of electron from closest to the nucleus to farthest from the
nucleus.
• The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the highest is its binding energy.
• In their normal state, atoms are electrically neutral; the electric charge on the atom is zero.
• Ionized – an atom has an extra electron or has had an electron removed.
• An alteration in the number of neutrons does not ionize an atom because the neutron is
electrically neutral.
• Ionization – is the removal of an orbital electron from an atom.
• The larger the atom, the greater the abundance of neutrons over protons.
 ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT

MAXIMUM ELECTRONS PER SHELL

2 where n is the shell number

The maximum number of electrons that can exist in each shell
increases with the distance of the shell from the nucleus.
•The orderly scheme of atomic progression from smallest to largest atom is
interrupted in the fourth period. Instead of simply adding electrons to the
next outer shell, electrons added to an inner shell. The atoms associated
with this phenomenon are called the transitional element.
Centripetal Force or center – seeking – the force that keeps an electron on orbit.
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ELECTRONS THAT CAN OCCUPY
EACH ELECTRON SHELL  The number of electrons in the
SHELL NUMBER SHELL SYMBOL NUMBER OF
ELECTRONS outermost shell of an atom is equal to its
1 K 2
group in the periodic table. The number
2 L 8
of electrons in the outermost shell
3 M 18
determines the valence of an atom. The
4 N 32
number of the outermost electron shell
5 O 50
of an atom is equal to its period in the
6 P 72
periodic table.
7 Q 98
 ELECTRON BINDING

 The strength of attachment of an electron to the nucleus.

 The closer an electron is to the nucleus; the more tightly it is bound.

 K – Shell electrons have higher binding energies than L – shell electrons but
they are more tightly bound to the nucleus than M – shell.
The Atom
• The smallest particle that has all the properties of an
element
Atomic Structure
All matter is composed of atoms.

Understanding the structure of atoms is

critical to understanding the properties of
matter
HISTORY OF THE ATOM
Greek Atom
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1808 John
Dalton

suggested that all matter was made up of

tiny spheres that were able to bounce around

with perfect elasticity and called them

ATOMS
Dalton Atom
 DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY

16 X + 8 Y 8 X2Y
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1898 Joseph John Thompson

found that atoms could sometimes eject a

far smaller negative particle which he called

an

ELECTRON
A = alpha
J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e-
B = gamma
C = beta (1906 Nobel Prize in Physics)
He called the center of the atom NUCLEUS
CHARGE OF AN ELECTRON
gold foil

helium nuclei

Millikan oil drop

experiment
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1910 Ernest Rutherford

oversaw Geiger and Marsden carrying out his

famous experiment.

they fired Helium nuclei at a piece of gold foil

which was only a few atoms thick.

they found that although most of them

passed through. About 1 in 10,000 hit
Rutherford’s experiment.
Thomson Atom

Plum pudding
 HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1913 Niels Bohr

studied under Rutherford at the Victoria

University in Manchester.

Bohr refined Rutherford's idea by adding

that the electrons were in orbits. Rather
like planets orbiting the sun. With each
orbit only able to contain a set number of
electrons.
Bohr Atom
The Bohr Model of the Atom
Atomic Structure
Neutral atoms have the same
number of protons and
electrons.

Ions are charged atoms.

-cations – have more
protons than electrons and
are positively charged
-anions – have more
electrons than protons and
Fundamental Particles
• Electron
• The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e− or β−, with a negative
elementary electric charge.
• Proton
• The proton is a subatomic particle, symbol p or p+, with a positive electric
charge of +1e elementary charge and mass slightly less than that of a
neutron.
• Neutron
• The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol n or n0, with no net electric charge
and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons, each
with mass approximately one atomic mass unit, constitute the nucleus of an
atom, and they are collectively referred to as "nucleons".
Fundamental Particles
Important Characteristics of the Fundamental Particles
MASS
Particle Location Relativ kg Amu Number Charge Symbol
e
Electron Shell 1 9.11x10 exp 0.000549 0 -1 -
-31
Proton Nucleus 1836 1.67x10 1.00728 1 +1 +
exp-27
Neutron Nucleus 1836 1.67x10 1.00867 1 0 0
exp-27
Atomic Weight
Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

Where 1 amu is
approximately equal to
1.6605 x 10-24 grams

49
 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

The atomic mass of the proton and the neutron is

approximately:

Proton = 1.6726 x 10-24 grams = 1.0073 amu

Neutron = 1.6749 x 10-24 grams = 1.0087 amu

Thus, the neutron is just a little heavier than the

proton.
 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

The difference in the mass of the neutron and the proton can be
understood if we assume that the neutron is merely a proton
combined with an electron forming a neutral particle slightly more
massive than a proton alone.

51
 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

The atomic mass of the electron is approximately:

Electron = 9.1094 x 10-28 grams = 0.00055 amu

Thus, the electron has a much smaller mass than

either the proton or the neutron, 1837 times
smaller or about 2000 times smaller.
 Elements

The number of protons in an atom dictate the

element.

For an uncharged atom, the number of

electrons equals the number of protons.
 10 Most Abundant Elements

Element Symbol Protons Relative % of Earth’s Mass

Oxygen O 8 46.6
Silicon Si 14 27.7
Aluminum Al 13 8.1
Iron Fe 26 5.0
Calcium Ca 20 3.6
Sodium Na 11 2.8
Potassium K 19 2.6
Magnesium Mg 12 2.1
Titanium Ti 22 0.4
Hydrogen H 1 0.1

54
Electron Binding Energy
 Electron Binding Energy
Electrons can have only discrete energy levels
To remove an electron from its shell
 E  electron binding energy
Discrete shells around the nucleus : K, L, M, …
K shell has maximum energy (i.e. stability)
Binding energy decreasing when Z increases
Maximum number of electrons in each shell : 2 in K,
8 in L shell, …

Part 2: Radiation Physics 56

 Ionization-Excitation

Energy

Part 2: Radiation Physics 57

 De-excitation
Auger-
electron

characteristic
radiation

Part 2: Radiation Physics 58

 The Nucleus
Energy Levels
ENERGY
Excitation Deexcitation

Particle emission

0 MeV

~8 MeV

Occupied levels Gamma ray

The nucleons can occupy different energy levels and the nucleus can be present in a
ground state or in an excited state. An excited state can be reached by adding energy
to the nucleus. At deexcitation the nucleus will emit the excess of energy by particle
emission or by electromagnetic radiation. In this case the electromagnetic radiation is
called a gamma ray. The energy of the gamma ray will be the difference in energies
between the different energy levels in the nucleus.
Part 2: Radiation Physics 59
Concepts of the Atom
Dalton’s Model
• In the early 1800s, the
English Chemist John
Dalton performed a
number of experiments
that eventually led to
the acceptance of the
idea of atoms.
Dalton’s Theory
• He deduced that all elements
are composed of atoms. Atoms
are indivisible and
indestructible particles.
• Atoms of the same element
are exactly alike.
• Atoms of different elements
are different.
• Compounds are formed by the
joining of atoms of two or
more elements.
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
• In 1897, the
English scientist J.J.
Thomson provided
the first hint that
an atom is made of
even smaller
particles.
Thomson Model
• He proposed a model of
the atom that is
sometimes called the
“Plum Pudding” model.
• Atoms were made from
a positively charged
substance with
negatively charged
electrons scattered
about, like raisins in a
pudding.
Thomson Model
• Thomson studied
the passage of an
electric current
through a gas.
• As the current
passed through the
gas, it gave off rays
of negatively
charged particles.
Thomson Model
Where did
they come
• This surprised from?

Thomson, because
the atoms of the
gas were
uncharged. Where
had the negative
charges come
from?
Thomson concluded that the negative
charges came from within the atom.

A particle smaller than an atom had to

exist.

The atom was divisible!

Thomson called the negatively charged

“corpuscles,” today known as
electrons.

Since the gas was known to be neutral,

having no charge, he reasoned that
there must be positively charged
particles in the atom.

But he could never find them.

Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
• In 1908, the English
physicist Ernest
Rutherford was hard at
work on an experiment
that seemed to have
little to do with
unraveling the mysteries
of the atomic structure.
• Rutherford’s experiment Involved firing a
stream of tiny positively charged particles
at a thin sheet of gold foil (2000 atoms
thick)
• Most of the positively
charged “bullets” passed
right through the gold atoms
in the sheet of gold foil
without changing course at
all.
• Some of the positively
charged “bullets,” however,
did bounce away from the
gold sheet as if they had hit
something solid. He knew
that positive charges repel
positive charges.
• This could only mean that the gold atoms in the sheet were mostly
open space. Atoms were not a pudding filled with a positively charged
material.
• Rutherford concluded that an atom had a small, dense, positively
charged center that repelled his positively charged “bullets.”
• He called the center of the atom the “nucleus”
• The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a whole.
Rutherford
• Rutherford reasoned
that all of an atom’s
positively charged
particles were contained
in the nucleus. The
negatively charged
particles were scattered
outside the nucleus
around the atom’s edge.
Bohr Model
• In 1913, the Danish
scientist Niels Bohr
proposed an
improvement. In his
model, he placed
each electron in a
specific energy level.
Bohr Model
• According to Bohr’s
atomic model, electrons
move in definite orbits
around the nucleus,
much like planets circle
the sun. These orbits, or
energy levels, are
located at certain
distances from the
nucleus.
Wave Model
The Wave Model
• Today’s atomic model is based on
the principles of wave mechanics.
• According to the theory of wave
mechanics, electrons do not move
about an atom in a definite path,
like the planets around the sun.
The Wave Model
• In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact location
of an electron. The probable location of an electron is
based on how much energy the electron has.
• According to the modern atomic model, at atom has a
small positively charged nucleus surrounded by a
large region in which there are enough electrons to
make an atom neutral.
Electron Cloud:
• A space in which electrons are likely
to be found.
• Electrons whirl about the nucleus
billions of times in one second
• They are not moving around in
random patterns.
• Location of electrons depends upon
how much energy the electron has.
Electron Cloud:

• Depending on their energy they are locked into a certain area in the
cloud.
• Electrons with the lowest energy are found in the energy level
closest to the nucleus
• Electrons with the highest energy are found in the outermost energy
levels, farther from the nucleus.
 Indivisible Electron Nucleus Orbit Electron
Cloud
Greek X
Dalton X
Thomson X
Rutherford X X
Bohr X X X
Wave X X X
Fundamental Forces
of the Universe
There are four fundamental forces,
or interactions in nature.

• Strong nuclear Strongest

• Electromagnetic
• Weak nuclear
• Gravitational
Weakest
Strong nuclear force

• Holds the nuclei of atoms together

• Very strong, but only over very, very, very short
distances (within the nucleus of the atom)
Electromagnetic force
• Causes electric and magnetic effects
• Like charges repel each other
• Opposite charges attract each other
• Interactions between magnets
• Weaker than the strong nuclear force
• Acts over a much longer distance range than the
strong nuclear force
Weak nuclear force

• Responsible for nuclear decay

• Weak and has a very short distance range
Gravitational force
• Weakest of all fundamental forces, but acts over very long distances
• Always attractive
• Acts between any two pieces of matter in the universe
• Very important in explaining the structure of the universe
Remember…
• The weak nuclear force is NOT the weakest of the
fundamental forces.
• GRAVITY is the weakest force, but most important
in understanding how objects in the universe
interact.
 Nuclear Reactions
• There are two kinds of nuclear reactions:
• Fusion
• Fission

• Protons and neutrons are the two most important

subatomic particles in the nucleus and participate in
these reactions.
 Fusion
 Fusion is the process of combining
nuclei of atoms to make different atoms.

 This
reaction is going from SMALL to
LARGE particles.

 Think of fusing two things together.

 Fusion
 Nuclear fusion happens at the sun.

 One atom of hydrogen-3 and one atom

of hydrogen combine to form a helium
atom, a neutron and lots of energy!!!
hydrogen-3 helium atom

neutron

hydrogen
atom
 Fusion
 Where does the energy come from?
 Energy is gained when the two
hydrogen atoms break apart.
 Some of this energy is used up to create
the helium atom, but the rest is given off
as light.
 Mass is converted to energy!
E = mc2 (c = 3.0 X 108 m/s)
 Since the speed of light is so large even a
small mass will be converted to a very large
energy.
 Fission
 Fission
is the process of breaking up the
nucleus of an atom.

 This
reaction is going from LARGE to
SMALL particles.

 Think of breaking two things apart.

 Fission
 Nuclear fission happens on earth.

 Nuclear fission begins when a neutron

hits the nucleus of large atom.

 Adding this neutron makes the nucleus

unstable and it splits into two smaller
nuclei and two neutrons.
Fission
 Chain Reactions
 If there are other 235U atoms nearby, the
neutrons that came from splitting the first
235U nucleus can hit other atoms.

 The nuclei of these other atoms will

release more neutrons and split more
235U atoms.

 This is called a chain reaction.

Chain Reactions
 Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the process where the nucleus
emits particles or energy.

• There are three types of radioactive decay:

• Alpha decay
• Beta decay
• Gamma decay
Alpha decay
• A particle with 2 protons and 2 neutrons is
released from an unstable nucleus.

• Alpha decay can be stopped by clothing, skin, a

few centimeters of air, or cardboard.
 Alpha Decay

A A-4 4

Z
X Z-2
Y + 2
He

unstable atom alpha particle

more stable atom
 Alpha Decay

222
226 Rn
88
Ra 86

2
He
 Alpha Decay

A A-4 4

Z
X Z-2
Y + 2
He

226 222 4
88
Ra 86
Rn + 2
He
 Alpha Decay

222 A 4

86
Rn Z
Y + 2
He

222 218 4

86
Rn 84
Po + 2
He
Beta decay
• This occurs when a neutron in the nucleus of a
radioactive isotope splits into a proton and an
electron.

• The electron is emitted.

• Beta decay can be stopped by dense clothing or

wood.
 Beta Decay

A A 0

Z
X Z+1
Y + -1
b

218 218 0

84
Po 85
+ -1
b
 Beta Decay

As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one less

neutron, but one extra proton.

The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the mass

number, A, stays the same.
 Beta Decay

218
218 At
84
Po 85

-1
b
 Beta Decay

234 A 0

90
Th Z
Y + -1
b

234 234 0

90
Th 91
Pa + -1
b
 Beta Decay

As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one less

neutron, but one extra proton.

The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the mass

number, A, stays the same.
 Beta Decay

218
218 At
84
Po 85

-1
b
 Beta Decay

A A 0

Z
X Z+1
Y + -1
b

218 218 0

84
Po 85
Rn + -1
b
 Beta Decay

234 A 0

90
Th Z
Y + -1
b

234 234 0

90
Th 91
Pa + -1
b
 Beta-Minus (Negatron) Decay

• Beta-minus (-) decay characteristically occurs with radionuclides that

have an excess number of neutrons compared with the number of
protons (i.e., high N/Z ratio)
A A -
Z X Y  β    energy
Z 1

• Any excess energy in the nucleus after beta decay is emitted as

gamma rays, internal conversion electrons or other associated
radiations

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 114

 Beta-Plus Decay (Positron Emission)

• Beta-plus (+) decay characteristically occurs with radionuclides that

are “neutron poor” (i.e., low N/Z ratio).
A A 
Z X Y  β    energy
Z-1

• Eventual fate of positron is to annihilate with its antiparticle (an

electron), yielding two 511-keV photons emitted in opposite
directions.

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 115

Gamma decay
• This involves the release of high-energy,
electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus of the
atom.

• Gamma rays have even more energy than X-rays.

• It can only be stopped with thick walls of concrete

or lead.
 Radioactive Decay

# of Decreases Increases
Unchanged
Protons by 2 by 1
# of Decreases Decreases
Unchanged
Neutrons by 2 by 1
An alpha
What is An electron A gamma ray
particle
released? and energy (high energy)
and energy
 Electron Capture Decay

• Alternative to positron decay for neutron-deficient radionuclides

• Nucleus captures an orbital (usually K- or L-shell) electron

A
Z X  e-  A
Z-1 Y    energy
• Electron capture radionuclides used in medical imaging decay to
atoms in excited states that subsequently emit detectable gamma rays

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 118

 Isomeric Transition

• During radioactive decay, a daughter may be formed in an excited

state
• Gamma rays are emitted as the daughter nucleus transitions from
the excited state to a lower-energy state
• Some excited states may have a half-lives ranging up to more than
600 years

Am A
Z X  X  energy
Z

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 119

 RADIONUCLIDE DECAY MODES
 emission

Generally accompanies other radioactive decay

associated with energy loss from changes in nuclear energy
states

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 120

 Decay Schemes

• Each radionuclide’s decay process is a unique characteristic

of that radionuclide.
• Majority of pertinent information about the decay process
and its associated radiation can be summarized in a line
diagram called a decay scheme
• Decay schemes identify the parent, daughter, mode of decay,
intermediate excited states, energy levels, radiation
emissions, and sometimes physical half-life.

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 121

Generalized Decay Scheme

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 122

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 123
20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 124
20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 125
20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 126
 Summary: Radioactive Decay
• Fission: Some heavy nuclei decay by splitting into 2 or 3
fragments plus some neutrons. These fragments form
new nuclei which are usually radioactive;
• Alpha Decay: Two protons and two neutrons leave the
nucleus together in an assembly known as an alpha-
particle;
• An alpha-particle is a He-4 nucleus;
• Beta Decay - Electron Emission: Certain nuclei with an
excess of neutrons may reach stability by converting a
neutron into a proton with the emission of a beta-minus
particle;
• A beta-minus particle is an electron;
20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 127
 Summary: Radioactive Decay
• Beta Decay - Positron Emission: When the number of
protons in a nucleus is in excess, the nucleus may
reach stability by converting a proton into a neutron
with the emission of a beta-plus particle;
• A beta-plus particle is a positron;
• Positrons annihilate with electrons to produce two
back-to-back gamma-rays;
• Beta Decay - Electron Capture: An inner orbital
electron is attracted into the nucleus where it
combines with a proton to form a neutron;

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 128

 Summary: Radioactive Decay
• Electron capture is also known as K-capture;
• Following electron capture, the excited nucleus may give
off some gamma-rays. In addition, as the vacant electron
site is filled, an X-ray is emitted;
• Gamma Decay - Isomeric Transition: A nucleus in an
excited state may reach its ground state by the emission
of a gamma-ray;
• A gamma-ray is an electromagnetic photon of high
energy;
• Gamma Decay - Internal Conversion: the excitation
energy of an excited nucleus is given to an atomic
electron.
20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 129
 Beta-Minus (Negatron) Decay

• Beta-minus (-) decay characteristically occurs with radionuclides that

have an excess number of neutrons compared with the number of
protons (i.e., high N/Z ratio)
A A -
Z X Y  β    energy
Z 1

• Any excess energy in the nucleus after beta decay is emitted as

gamma rays, internal conversion electrons or other associated
radiations

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 130

 Beta-Plus Decay (Positron Emission)

• Beta-plus (+) decay characteristically occurs with radionuclides that

are “neutron poor” (i.e., low N/Z ratio).
A A 
Z X Y  β    energy
Z-1

• Eventual fate of positron is to annihilate with its antiparticle (an

electron), yielding two 511-keV photons emitted in opposite
directions.

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 131

 Electron Capture Decay

• Alternative to positron decay for neutron-deficient radionuclides

• Nucleus captures an orbital (usually K- or L-shell) electron

A
Z X  e-  A
Z-1 Y    energy
• Electron capture radionuclides used in medical imaging decay to
atoms in excited states that subsequently emit detectable gamma rays

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 132

 Isomeric Transition

• During radioactive decay, a daughter may be formed in an excited

state
• Gamma rays are emitted as the daughter nucleus transitions from
the excited state to a lower-energy state
• Some excited states may have a half-lives ranging up to more than
600 years

Am A
Z X  X  energy
Z

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 133

 Decay Schemes

• Each radionuclide’s decay process is a unique characteristic

of that radionuclide.
• Majority of pertinent information about the decay process
and its associated radiation can be summarized in a line
diagram called a decay scheme
• Decay schemes identify the parent, daughter, mode of decay,
intermediate excited states, energy levels, radiation
emissions, and sometimes physical half-life.

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 134

 Summary: Radioactive Decay
• Fission: Some heavy nuclei decay by splitting into 2 or 3
fragments plus some neutrons. These fragments form
new nuclei which are usually radioactive;
• Alpha Decay: Two protons and two neutrons leave the
nucleus together in an assembly known as an alpha-
particle;
• An alpha-particle is a He-4 nucleus;
• Beta Decay - Electron Emission: Certain nuclei with an
excess of neutrons may reach stability by converting a
neutron into a proton with the emission of a beta-minus
particle;
• A beta-minus particle is an electron;
20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 135
 Summary: Radioactive Decay
• Beta Decay - Positron Emission: When the number of
protons in a nucleus is in excess, the nucleus may
reach stability by converting a proton into a neutron
with the emission of a beta-plus particle;
• A beta-plus particle is a positron;
• Positrons annihilate with electrons to produce two
back-to-back gamma-rays;
• Beta Decay - Electron Capture: An inner orbital
electron is attracted into the nucleus where it
combines with a proton to form a neutron;

20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 136

 Summary: Radioactive Decay
• Electron capture is also known as K-capture;
• Following electron capture, the excited nucleus may give
off some gamma-rays. In addition, as the vacant electron
site is filled, an X-ray is emitted;
• Gamma Decay - Isomeric Transition: A nucleus in an
excited state may reach its ground state by the emission
of a gamma-ray;
• A gamma-ray is an electromagnetic photon of high
energy;
• Gamma Decay - Internal Conversion: the excitation
energy of an excited nucleus is given to an atomic
electron.
20/02/2023 4th lecture RAD 311 137
Half Life
• Radiological or physical half-life is the amount of time it takes for half
of the radioactivity in a material to be gone or to decay. The half-life
of a radionuclide can be fractions of a second or up to millions of
years.
• Biological half-life refers to elimination of internal radioactivity by
biological processes.
• Effective half-life is a combination of radioactive decay and biological
elimination.
Half-Life
• The half-life of a radioactive element is the TIME
it takes for HALF of the radioactive atoms to
decay to stable ones.

• If there are 80 grams of a radioactive element

that has a half-life of 1000 years, then after
1000 years half of the element, or 40 grams of
the element, will remain.

• Now that there are only 40 grams left, how

many grams will be left after another 1000 years
has passed?
• There will be only 20 grams remaining.
Half-Life
• The number of half-lives that occur for an
element is found by dividing the total time by
the half-life of a radioactive element.

• Half-life ÷ total time = # of half-lives

• An element has a half-life of 1000 years. How

many half-lives have occurred after 2000 years
has passed?
• Two half-lives because 2000 years ÷ 1000 years = 2
Half-Life
• To find the fraction of the original amount think
of the original amount as 1 and then divide by 2.
• 1 ÷ 2 = 1/2, one-half is how much remains after one
half-life occurs.
• If two half-lives occur then divide the original
amount by 2 twice.
• 1 ÷ (2×2) = 1 ÷ 4 = 1/4, one-fourth is how much
remains after two half-lives occur.
• What do you do if three half-lives occur?
• 1 ÷ (2×2×2) = 1 ÷ 8 = 1/8, one-eighth is how much
remains after three half-lives occur.
Half-Life
Time Fraction of Amount Half-life
(years) element left left (g)

0 1 80 0
1000 1/2 40 1
2000 1/4 20 2
3000 1/8 10 3
Half-Life Practice Problem #1
• The radioactive isotope Fluorine-11 has a half-
life of 11.0 s. How many half-lives occur in 11.0
s for Fluorine-11?
• Only one half-life occurs because the half-life of
Fluorine-11 is 11.0 s.

• If you started with 30 g, how many grams are

left after 11.0 s?
• Since one half life occurs, 30 g is divided by 2 and
there are 15 g left.

• What fraction of the original amount is left?

• One-half of the original amount is left.
Half-Life Practice Problem #2
• The radioactive isotope Carbon-15 decays very fast
and has a half-life of 2.5 s. How many half-lives
occur in 5.0 s for Carbon-15?
• Two half-lives occur because 5.0 s ÷ 2.5 s = 2.

• If you started with 100 g, how many grams are left

after 5.0 s?
• Since 2 half-lives occur, the 100 g must be divided by 2
twice: 100 g ÷ 4 = 25 g.

• What fraction of the original amount is left?

• 1 ÷ (2×2) = 1 ÷ 4 = 1/4, one-fourth remains.
Half-Life Practice Problem #3
• Neon-15 has a half-life of 30 s. How many half-
lives occur in 1.5 min?
• Three half-lives occur because 1.5 min = 90 s and 90 s ÷
30 s = 3.

• If you started with 56 g, how many grams are left

after 1.5 min?
• Since 3 half-lives occurred, the 39 g must be divided by
2 three times: 56 g ÷ 8 = 7 g.

• What fraction of the original amount is left?

• 1 ÷ (2×2×2) = 1 ÷ 8 = 1/8, one-eighth is left
The activity of a radioactive sample is the rate at which atoms decay.

If N(t) is the number of atoms present at a time t, then the activity R is

dN
R =- .
dt

dN/dt is negative, so the activity is a positive quantity.

The SI unit of activity is the becquerel: 1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 event/second.

Another unit of activity is the curie (Ci) defined by

1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.70x1010 events/s = 37 GBq.
Half-Life

Experimental measurements show that the activities of radioactive samples fall off
exponentially with time.

*Empirically:
R = - R 0 e-λt .
 is called the “decay constant” of the decaying nuclide. Each radioactive nuclide has
a different decay constant.

*Argh!
The half-life, T½, is the time it takes for the activity to drop by ½. We can find a
relationship between  and T½:

R0 -λΤ 1/2
= - R 0e
2

activity after T½ original activity

1 -λΤ
= e 1/2
2
+λΤ 1/2
e =2

Τ1/2 = ln 2 

ln 2  0.693
= =
Τ 1/2 Τ 1/2
Here's a plot of the activity of a radionuclide.

The initial activity was chosen

to be 1000 for this plot.

The half-life is 10 (in whatever

time units we are using).

All decay curves look like this; only the numbers on the axes will differ, depending
on the radionuclide (which determines the half-life) and the amount of radioactive
material (which determines the initial activity).
A plot of radioactive decay (they use A instead of R for activity).
Remember, empirically…

R = - R 0 e-λt .
What is empirically?! Ahuh!

The empirical activity law can be derived if we assume that  is the probability per
unit time for the decay of a nucleus.

Then dt is the probability that the nucleus will undergo decay in a time dt.

If a sample contains N undecayed nuclei, then the number dN that will decay in the
time dt is just N times the probability of decay,

dN = - N  dt .
This equation can be integrated to give

N = - N0 e-λt .
which you should recognize as looking like the activity law with N's instead of R's.

The activity R of a sample of N radioactive nuclei is just

R =  N.

What’s the difference between

R = - R 0 e-λt and N = - N0e -λt

Other than the fact that one talks about rates and the other about numbers?
 R = - R 0 e -λt
is empirical, and you should always be suspicious of empirical equations, which may
or may not have any physical meaning.

N = - N0 e -λt
was derived under the assumption that  is the decay probability per unit time, and
is part of a testable theory. Big difference!

Important! The equation for activity R in terms the number of nuclei present

R = N
involves , which is a probability.