FE Review

Materials Properties

Jeffrey W. Fergus
Materials Engineering
Office: 284 Wilmore
Phone: 844-3405
email: jwfergus@eng.auburn.edu
 Electrical Properties

• Electrical resistance
– resistance (R) = resistivity (ρ) length (l) / area (A) l
– resistivity is materals property
– conductivity (σ) = 1 / resistivity (ρ)
A
• Temperature dependence: with increasing
temperature…
– Metals: resistance increases (conductivity decreases)
– Semiconductors: conductivity increases (resistivity decreases)
• Extrinsic: like metals in intermediate temperatures
– Insulators: conductivity increases (resistivity decreases)
 Mechanical Properties

• Stress-strain relationships
– engineering stress and strain
– stress-strain curve
• Testing methods
– tensile test
– endurance test
– impact test
 Stress
F F
Normal    Shear   
A A
F F F
A A A

Tension: >0 Compression: <0

 Strain
l  l o l a
Strain     Shear strain     tan 
lo lo h


l lo lo l h
 Tensile Test
thickness

Control length (l)

l  l o l
Strain    
lo lo

Measure force (F) with load cell

length F F
width
Stress    
A w t

Reduced section used to limit

portion of sample undergoing
deformation
 Stress-Strain Curve
Ultimate Tensile Strength Force decreases due to necking

Yield Point
Elastic Limit

Proportionality
Stress

Limit

Slope = E (Young’s Modulus)

Strain
Percent Elongation
(total plastic deformation)
 0.2% Offset Yield Strength

0.2% offset
yield strength
Stress

Strain
0.2% strain
 True/Engineering Stress/Strain

Stress Strain
Engineering F l  l o l
E  E  
(initial dimensions) Ao lo lo

True li l 
F dl
(instantaneous T  T    ln i 
Ai lo l  lo 
dimensions)
Using T  ln E  1
and
Ai  l i  Ao  l o
T  E 1  E 
True/Engineering Stress/Strain

True
True stress does not
decrease

Engineering
Stress

Decrease in engineering stress due

to decreased load required in the
reduces cross-sectional area of the
neck.

Strain
 Strain Hardening

Plastic deformation
require larger load
after deformation.
Stress

Sample dimensions
Onset of plastic are decreased, so
deformation after stress is even
reloading
higher

Strain
 Bending Test

Four-point Three-point
F/2 F/2 F w
h

L/2 L

By summing moment in cantilever beam

3FL
max 
2wh 2
Tension at bottom, compression at top
 Hardness

• Resistance to plastic deformation

• Related to yield strength
• Most common indentation test
– make indentation
– measure size or depth of indentation
– macro- and micro- tests
• Scales: Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, Knoop
 Impact
Toughness: combination
of strength and ductility -
energy for fracture

Charpy V-notch hi
hf

Fracture energy = mghi -mghf

 Ductile-Brittle Failure

• Ductile
– Plastic deformation
Ductile-Brittle
– cup-cone / fibrous
Transition Tempeature
fracture surface (DBTT)
• Brittle
– little or no plastic

Fracture Energy
deformation
– cleaved fracture
surface

Temperature
 Creep / Stress Relaxation

• Load below yield strength - elastic deformation only

• Over long time plastic deformation occurs
• Requires diffusion, so usually a high-temperature
process
• Activation energy, Q (or EA)

Q   EA 
creep rate    A  exp   A  exp  
 RT   kT 
 Creep /Stress Relaxation
Creep Stress Relaxation
F F

time time

fixed strain
F
F
fixed load Permanent deformation
 Fatigue
Repeated application of load - number of cycles, rather
than time important.
max

0 Fatigue Limit
(ferrous metals)

Stress
min
ave 
max

Number of Cycles to Failure

0
min
 Corrosion Resistance
• Thermodynamics vs. Kinetics
– Thermodynamics - stable phases
– Kinetic - rate to form stable phases
• Active vs. Passive
– Active: reaction products ions or gas - non protective
– Passive: reaction products - protective layer
• Corrosion resistance
– Inert (noble): gold, platinum
– Passivation: aluminum oxide (alumina) on aluminum,
chromia on stainless steel
 Electrode Potential

• Tendency of metal to give up electron

• Oxidation (anode)
– M = M2+ + 2e- (loss electrons)
• Reduction (cathode)
– M2+ + 2e- = M (gain electrons)
• LEO (loss electrons oxidation) goes GER (gain
electrons reduction)
 Corrosion Reactions
• Oxidation - metal (anode)
– M = M2+ + 2e-
• Reduction - in solution (cathode)
– 2H+ + 2e- = H2
– 2H+ + ½O2 + 2e- = H2O
– H2O + ½O2 + 2e- = 2OH-
• Overall Reactions
– M + 2H+ =M2+ + H2
– M + 2H+ + ½O2 = M2+ + H2O
– M + H2O + ½O2 = M2+ + 2OH- = M(OH)2
 Electromotive Force

• Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG) =-nFE (Electromotive Force)

– n = number of electrons, F = Faraday’s Constant
– Favorable: Energy decrease (-) = positive voltage
• Fe2+ + 2e- = Fe: Ered = +0.440 V
• Fe = Fe2+ + 2e-: Eox = -0.440 V
• H2O = 2H+ + ½O2 +2e-: Ered = +1.229 V
• Fe + 2H+ + ½O2 = Fe2+ + H2O: E = 0.789 V
– E does not change with number of moles (ΔG does)
– E must be corrected for non-standard state
• Concentration of H+ (i.e. pH), oxygen pressure…
 Galvanic Corrosion / Protection
• At joint between dissimilar metals
– reaction rate of active metal increases
– reaction of less active metal decreases
• Galvanic corrosion
– high corrosion rate at galvanic couple
• presence of Cu increase the local corrosion rate of Fe
• Galvanic protection Fe Cu
– Galvanized steel
• presence of Zn decreases the local corrosion rate of Fe
– Galvanic protection
• Mg or Zn connected to Fe decrease corrosion rate
Zn

Fe
 Waterline Corrosion
• Oxygen concentration in water leads to variation in
local corrosion rates

Higher corrosion rate near

oxygen access

Rust just below water Rings of rust left from water

surface drops
 Materials Processing

• Diffusion
• Phase Diagrams
– Gibb’s phase rule
– Lever rule
– Eutectic system / microconstituents
– Fe-Fe3C diagram (ferrous metals)
• Thermal-mechanical processing
 Diffusion
• Atoms moving within solid state
• Required defects (e.g. vacancies)
• Diffusion thermally activated
• Diffusion constant follows Arrhenius relationship

Activation Energy

Q   EA 
D  Do exp   Do exp 
 RT   kT 

Boltzman’s
Gas constant Temperature constant
 Steady-State Diffusion
 C 
• Fick’s first law (1-D) J  D 
 x 
• J = flux (amount/area/time)
• For steady state  C 
J  D 
 x 
 mass 
 m 2  m 3  mass
J    
 s  m  m 2s
  
 
C

x
 Phase Equilibria
• Gibb’s Phase Rule
• P + F = C + 2 (Police Force = Cops + 2)
– P = number of phases
– F = degrees of freedom
– C = number of components (undivided units)
– 2: Temperature and Pressure
• One-component system
– F=1+2-P=3-P
• Two-component system
– F=2+2-P=4-P
• Two-component system at constant pressure
– F=2+1-P=3-P

“2” becomes “1” at constant pressure

 Pressure-Temperature Diagram
One component: H2O
Two-phase line: Change T (P) If formation of H2 and O2 were
require specific change in P (T) considered there would be two
(F=1) components (H and O)

Single-phase area: can change T

water and P independently
(F=2)
Pressure

ice Three-phase point: One occurs at

specific T and P (triple point)
water
(F=0)
vapor

Temperature
 Phase Diagrams
Two-component @ constant
pressure Peritectic
Three-phase - horizontal line L +solid ()  solid ()

 L L

Eutectic
Temperature

L L L  2 solids ( + )




Eutectoid
 solid ()  2 solids ( + )

  (pure B,
A B negligible
Composition (%B)
solubility of A)
 Lever Law
• Phase diagram give compositions of phases
– two-phase boundaries in 2-phase mixture
• Mass balance generate lever law
Alloy Liquid Opposite arm over total length
Solid
Comp. Comp.
Comp. (XS)
(Xalloy) (XL)
Right arm for solid
X L  X alloy
L
Temperature

%solid 
X L  XS

Left arm for liquid

S
X alloy  X S
%liquid 
XL  XS

A Composition (%B) B
 70 wt% Pb -30 wt% Sn
A sse sse d P b - S n p h a se d ia g r a m .

First solid At 183.1°C

30%Sn( alloy )  18.3%Sn( Pb )

%liq.61.8%Sn    30%
61.8%Sn( liq.)  18.3%Sn( Pb )
256°C

L (Pb)

61.8%Sn( eut .)  30%Sn( alloy )

 
% prim.Pb 18.3%Sn   70%
61.8%Sn( eut .)  18.3%Sn( Pb )

12.8 wt% Sn
 70 wt% Pb -30 wt% Sn
A sse sse d P b - S n p h a se d ia g r a m .

First solid At 182.9°C

30%Sn( alloy )  18.3%Sn( Pb )

%97.8%Sn    15%
256°C
97.8%Sn( liq.)  18.3%Sn( Pb )

(Pb)

Eutectic
(Pb)+β

97.8%Sn( liq.)  30%Sn( alloy )

%Pb  phase18.3%Sn    85%
97.8%Sn( liq.)  18.3%Sn( Pb )

12.8 wt% Sn
 Microconstituents
Primary Pb
61.8%Sn( eut .)  30%Sn( alloy )
 
%Prim.Pb 18.3%Sn   70%
61.8%Sn( eut .)  18.3%Sn( Pb )

Eutectic Microsconstituent ((Pb)+Sn)

30%Sn( alloy )  18.3%Sn( Pb )
 
%L 61.8%Sn   30%
61.8%Sn( liq.)  18.3%Sn( Pb )

Phases in Eutectic Microsconstituent

61.8%Sn( eut .)  18.3%Sn( Pb )
%in eut . 97.8%Sn    55%
97.8%Sn( liq.)  18.3%Sn( Pb )

97.8%Sn( liq .)  61.8%Sn( eut .)

%Pbin eut . 18.3%Sn    45%
97.8%Sn( liq .)  18.3%Sn( Pb )
 A sse ss e d F e - C p h a se d ia g r a m .

Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

Austenite Cementite

Ferrite

Cast Irons

Pearlite (ferrite + cementite)

Hypoeutectoid Hypereutectoid
%C = 0.77%
Steels
 Time-Temperature-Transformation
(TTT) Diagram
Decomposition of Austenite at fixed
temperature Pearlite: High Temp
slow nucleation
800°C
fs
727°C
Coarse pearlite
ps pf
Temperature

Fine pearlite
Key
Main symbol Bainite:
bs bf f = ferrite Diffusion slow
p = pearlite
ms b = bainite
for pearlite
200°C c = cementite
100°C (Fe3C)
mf Subscripts
s = start
f = finish
Martensite
Log Time athermal (diffusionless)
Quench / Hardenability / Tempering

• Quench - rapidly cool

– in steel: cool fast enough to Ms to prevent pearlite / bainite
formation
• Hardenability
– ease of forming martensite in steels
– alloying elements inhibit pearlite / bainite formation, promote
martensite formation
• Tempering of steels
– reheating martensite to form transition carbides
– improve toughness
 Cold Working
• Plastic deformation creates dislocations, which
increases strength / decreases ductility
• Reduction in Area used to quantify degree of cold
working Ai  Af
%CW  %RA   100%
Ai
w i  l i  w f  lf
%RA   100%
w i  li
for w f  w i
l l
%RA  i f  100%
li
d2 d2
d2  d2
i f

%RA  4 4  100 %  i f
 100 %
2 2
d d
i i
4
 Cold Worked Properties
600 16

14
500

12

Percent Elongation
400
Yield Strength 10
Stress (MPa)

Tensile Strength
Percent Elongation
300 8

6
200

100
2

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percent Cold Work
 Balancing Strength / Ductility
600 35

30
500

25

Percent Elongation
400
Yield Strength
Stress (MPa)

Tensile Strength 20
300 Percent Elongation

15

200
10
Sy > 310 MPa
100
requires 5
Elongation > 10%
%CW > 22% 0 0
requires
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percent Cold Work %CW < 31%

Both Properties
requires
22% < %CW < 31%
 Balancing Strength / Toughness

Sy > 250 MPa 600

Yield Strength
50

and 550 Tensile Strength

Fracture Toughness
45

Kic > 16 Mpa m½

Fracture Toughness (KIc) (MPa m0.5)

500 40

requires 450 35
y = 250 MPa
13% < %CW < 39% Stress (MPa)
400 13% CW 30

350 0.5
25
KIc = 16 MPa m
39% CW
300 20

250 15

Example 200 31% CW 10

for 31% CW 150

Sy = 364 MPa
KIc = 22 MPa m0.5 5

Sy = 364 MPa 100 0

Kic = 22 Mpa m½ 0 10 20 30 40
Percent Cold Work
50 60 70
 Cold Work / Anneal / Hot Work
• Annealing can eliminate effect of cold work
– recovery - stress relief, little change in properties
– recrystallization - elimination of dislocations, decrease in
strength, increase in ductility
– grain growth - increase in grain size, decreases both
strength and ductility
• Hot working
– deforming at high enough temperature for immediate
recrystallization
– list cold-working and annealing at the same time
– no increase in strength
– used for large deformation
– poor surface finish - oxidation
– After hot working, cold working used to increase strength and
improve surface finish
Organization from 1996-7 Review Manual
(same topics in 2004 review manual)
• Crystallography
• Materials Testing
• Metallurgy
 Crystallography

• Crystal structure
– atoms/unit cell
– packing factor
– coordination number
• Atomic bonding
• Radioactive decay
 Bravais Lattice
Crystal System Centering
(x,y,z): Fractional coordinates -
proportion of axis length, not
absolute distanct

P: Primitive: (x,y,z)
I: Body-centered: (x,y,z); (x+½,y+½,z+½)
c
C: Base-centered: (x,y,z); (x+½,y+½,z)
F: Face-centered: (x,y,z); (x+½,y+½,z)
  b (x+½,y,z+½); (x,y+½,z+½)

a Centering must apply to all atoms
in unit cell.
 Bravais Lattices (14)
Crystal Primitive Body- Face- Base-
Parameters
System (Simple) Centered Centered Centered
abc
Cubic X X X

abc
Tetragonal X X

abc
Orthorhombic X X X X

abc
Rhombohedral X

abc
Hexagonal X

abc
Monoclinic X X

abc
Triclinic X

 Atoms Per Unit Cell
• Corners - shared by eight unit
cells (x 1/8)
– (0,0,0)=(1,0,0)=(0,1,0)=(0,0,1)=(1,1,0
)=(1,0,1)=(0,1,1)=(1,1,1)
• Edges - shared by four unit cells
(x 1/4)
– (0,0,½)= (1,0,½)= (0,1,½)= (1,1,½)
• Faces - shared by two unit cells (x
1/2)
– (½,½,0)= (½,½,1)
 Common Metal Structures
• Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)
– 8 corners x 1/8 + 6 faces x 1/2
– 1 + 3 = 4 atoms/u.c.
• Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)
– 8 corners x 1/8 + 1 center
– 1 + 1 = 2 atoms/u.c.
• Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
– 8 corners x 1/8 + 1 middle
– 1 + 1 = 2 atoms/u.c.
– 12 hex. Corner x 1/6 +2 face x 1/2 + 3
middle = 6 atoms/u.c.
 Packing Factor
• Fraction of space occupied by atoms P.F . 
 i  r 34
3

a b c
• For FCC
4
face diagonal  a 2  a 2  4  r  a  r
a 2
r 4 34 r 3   4  34 r 3   
a P .F .  3 3
 0.74
• For BCC a  4  3 2
 
 2
4
body diagonal  a 2  a 2  a 2  4  r  a  r
3

P .F . 
2 34 r 3   2  34 r 3    3
 0.68
3 3 8
a  4 
 
 3
 Density
 atom   mass 
  
u.c .   mole  mass
Density   
 atom   volume  volume
  
 mole   u .c . 
For nickel:
- Atomic weight = 58.71 g/mole
- Lattice parameter = 3.5239 Å=3.5239 x 10-8 cm
- Avogadro’s No. = 6.02 x 1023 = 0.602 x 1024 = atoms/mole

 4 atom   g 
 
  58 . 71 
 u .c .   mole  g
Density   8.915 3

 0.602 x 10


24 atom 
mole 
8
  3.5239 x 10 cm
3
cm
 Close Packed (CN=12)
Highest packing density for same sized spheres
FCC and HCP structures
 Cube Center (CN=8)
Same atoms: BCC
Different atoms: CsCl
 Octahedral Site (CN=6)
In FCC:
- Center (½,½,½)
- Edges (0,0,½),(0,½,0),(½,0,0)
- 4 per unit cell
- All filled - NaCl structure

8-sided shape
 Tetrahedral Site (CN=4)
In FCC:
- Divide cell into 8 boxes - center of small box
- (¼,¼,¼),(¾,¼,¼),(¼,¾,¼),(¾,¾,¼)
(¼,¼, ¾)(¾,¼, ¾),(¼,¾, ¾)(¾,¾, ¾)
-8 per unit cell
-All filled - CaF2 structure; half-filled - ZnS

4-sided shape
 Radius Ratio Rules
Critical radius is size of atom which just fits in site
Define minimum for bonding (i.e. atoms must touch to bond)

CN 8
Critical Radius for CN 8 = 0.732
CN 6
Critical Radius for CN 6 = 0.414
CN 4
Critical Radius for CN 4 = 0.225
CN 3
planar
 Close Packed Plane
A A B A B C

HCP: ABABABABABABABAB
FCC: ABCABCABCABCABC
Same packing density (0.74)
Same coordination (CN=12)
 Miller Indices
(hkl) specific - No commas
Planes - No fractions
{hkl} family
- Negative
[hkl] specific indicated by bar
Directions
<hkl> family over number

A family of planes includes all planes which are

equivalent by symmetry - depends on crystal system.
- For cubic: (110),(011) and (101) are all {110}
- For tetragonal: (011) and (101) are {101}
but (110) is not (ca)
 Miller Indices - Directions
c

b -1 1/2
a

x y z
-1/3 1/2 -1 -1/3 (x 6)
3 6 2 

1/2
1 x y z
1 1/4 1/2 (x 4)
4 1 2
1/4
 Miller Indices - Planes
c c
1 1
b 4 b 4
a a

1 1
2 2

x y z
intercept 1/4  -1/2
reciprocal 4 0 -2
4 0 2 
 Miller Indices - Planes
c
c
1 b
1
3 a 3
b
a
1 1
4 4

1 1
2 2

x y z
intercept 1/4 -1/3 -1/2
reciprocal 4 -3 -2
4 3 2 
 Atomic Bonding

• Covalent • Metallic
– sharing electrons – metal ions in sea or
electrons
– strong
– moderately strong
– directional
– non-directional
• Ionic
• Secondary
– trading of electrons – Van der Waals
– electrostatic attraction or – H-bonding
ions – electrostatic attraction of
– strong electric dipole (local charge
– non-directional distribution
– weak
 Radioactive Decay
• Loss of electrons/protons/neutrons
– alpha - 2 protons / two neutrons (i.e He nucleus)
– beta - electrons
– gamma - energy time
• Exponential decay  t
N  No exp  
   time constant

t1  1 No  t1
N  21 No  No exp  2   ln 2   ln 2     2
  No 
  ln 2
amount    
 t  ln 2    0 . 693  t 
N  No exp   N exp 
t 1    half life
o
  t1 
original amount  2   2 