Wave

Progressive Wave: Wave which carry energy from one

place to another place without movement of matter it
self is called progressive wave.

For example electromagnetic wave from the sun carry

the energy that plant need to survive and grow. The
energy carried by sound wave causes our ear drums to
vibrate. The energy carried by seismic wave (earthquake)
can cause land to move and building to collapse.
 Transverse wave
Transverse wave: A transverse wave is the
wave in which the vibration of the particles in
the wave are at right angles to the direction in
which the energy of the wave is travelling.
 Longitudinal Wave
Longitudinal wave: Longitudinal wave is the
wave in which the direction of the vibrations of
the particles in the wave is along the direction in
which the energy of the wave is travelling.
Graphical representation of wave
 Different Parameters of wave
Displacement: The displacement of a particle on a wave is its distance in a
specified direction from its rest position.

Amplitude: The amplitude of the wave motion is defined as the maximum

displacement of a particle in the wave.

Period (T): The period of the wave is the time taken for the particle in the
wave to complete one vibration or one cycle.

Wavelength (λ): The wavelength is the shortest distance between two

peaks or two troughs. It is the shortest distance between points which are
vibrating in phase with each other. It is the distance moved by the
wavefront during one oscillation of the source of the wave

Frequency (f): The number of complete vibration or the cycle per unit time
is called frequency of the wave. f=1/T
 Phase and Phase Difference
A term used to describe the relative position of the crests or troughs of two
different waves of same frequency is phase. When the crests and troughs of two
waves are aligned, the wave are said to be in phase. When the crests and
troughs are not aligned the waves are said to have phase difference. When a
crests and a troughs of two waves are aligned the waves are said to be in
antiphase or out of phase. Thus when waves are out of phase, one wave is half a
cycle behind the other. Since one cycle is equivalent to 2π radians or 360o , the
phase difference between waves that are exactly out of phase is π radians or
180o
Phase Difference
Phase Difference
 Intensity of wave
Amount of energy passing through unit area per unit time is called
intensity of the wave. Thus intensity is the power transferred per
unit area(Wm-2).the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude
of a wave. The intensity also depends upon the frequency, intensity is
proportional to the square of the frequency. For a wave of amplitude A and
frequency f, the intensity I is proportional to A2f2

If the wave from the point source spread out equally in all the direction, we
have spherical wave. As the wave travels further from the source, the
energy it carries passes through increasingly large area (4πr2). Hence
intensity I= W/ 4πr2
Thus I intensity is proportional to 1/r 2. This relationship assumes that there
is no absorption of wave energy

Derive wave equation v = λf

Properties of Wave
Ripple tank patterns for low and high frequency
Ripple tank patterns for a point source
Reflection of wave
Refraction of wave
Determining frequency using CRO
 Time period and Frequency Calculations
1. The time-base for the CRO used to obtain the trace in figure is 2.0
ms cm-1. Determine the period and frequency.

2. The time-base on a CRO is set on 0.5ms cm-1. The trace obtained

for a sound wave shows three complete time periods in 7.2 cm.
Calculate time period and frequency
 Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect is the apparent change in the frequency of a

wave motion when there is relative motion between the source
and the observer.
 Determining observed frequency
speed of sound in air be v. A source of sound has a frequency fs and wavelength λ. The
source moves towards the observer at a speed vs. Period of oscillation of the source is T =
1/ fs .

During time of one oscillation the source moves towards the observer a distance vsT.
Hence the wave length is shortened by this distance. The wavelength of the sound
received by the observer is λ- vsT.
Hence the frequency observed fo = v/ λ- vsT = v/(v/fs – vs/fs)
fo = fsv/ (v– vs)

For a source of sound moving away from an observer the observed wavelength would
lengthen. Hence observed frequency would be
fo = fsv/ (v + vs)

The frequency is increased when the source moves towards the observer and the
frequency is decreased when the source moves away from the observer.
 Doppler Shift

Red and blue shifts

Light from moving objects will appear to have different wavelengths
depending on the relative motion of the source and the observer. 

• Observers looking at an object that is moving away from them see

light that has a longer wavelength than it had when it was emitted
(a red shift), while observers looking at an approaching source see
light that is shifted to shorter wavelength (a blue shift).
 Calculation of observed frequency
1. A police car travels towards a stationary observer at a
speed of 15 ms-1. the siren on the car emits a sound of
frequency 250 Hz. Calculate the observed frequency.
The speed of sound is 340 ms-1. (260 Hz)

2. The sound emitted from the siren of an ambulance has

a frequency of 1500 Hz. The speed of sound is 340 ms-1.
Calculate the difference in frequency heard by a
stationary observer as the ambulance travels towards
and then away from the observer at a speed of 30 ms-1
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
All electromagnetic waves are transverse wave, consisting of
electric and magnetic fields which oscillate at right angles to each
other and to the direction in which the wave is travelling. EM
wave can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and they obey the
principle of superposition and produce interference pattern. In a
vacuum all EM wave travel at the same speed, 3.0x 108 ms-1.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Polarisation
 Polarisation

Unpolarized wave is a wave in which vibration occur in

infinite number of directions. Unpolarised light refers to
light waves that are scattered on more than one plane.

Polarized wave is a transverse wave in which vibrations

occur in only one of the directions at right angles to the
direction in which the wave energy is travelling. Polarized
light refers to those light waves that are restricted to one
plane only.
 Polarisation
Polarisation can only occur in transverse waves

This is because transverse waves oscillate in any

plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation
When transverse waves are polarised, this means:

Vibrations are restricted to one direction. These vibrations are

still perpendicular to the direction of propagation / energy
transfer
Longitudinal waves (e.g. sound waves) cannot be polarised

This is because they oscillate parallel to the direction of travel

This only allows

Waves can be polarised through a polariser or polarising filter.

oscillations in a certain plane to be transmitted

Polarisation

Diagram A shows: Only
unpolarised waves can be
polarised

Diagram B shows: When a
polarised wave passes through a
filter with a transmission axis
perpendicular to the wave, none
of the wave will pass through
Polarisation
Polarisation
Polarisation
If an unpolarised light source is
placed in front of two identical
polarising filters, A and B, with
their transmission axes parallel:

Filter A will polarise the light in a certain

axis

All of the polarised light will pass through

filter B unaffected

In this case, the maximum intensity of

light is transmitted
Polarisation
As the polarising filter B is rotated
anticlockwise, the intensity of the light
observed changes periodically
depending on the angle B is rotated
through
When A and B have their transmission
axes perpendicular to each other:

Filter A will polarise the light in a

certain axis
This time none of the polarised light
will pass through filter B

In this case, the minimum intensity of

light is transmitted
Malus’s Law
 Malus’s Law

The intensity of unpolarised light is reduced as a result of polarisation

The first filter that the unpolarised light goes through is the polariser and
second filter placed after the first one is known as an analyser 

If the analyser has the same orientation as the polariser, the light

transmitted by the analyser has the same intensity as the light incident on
it

If they have a different orientation, we must used Malus's law  

Malus's law states that if the analyser is rotated by an angle θ with

respect to the polariser, the intensity of the light transmitted by the
analyser is
I=I0cos2θ
The resulting graph of the light intensity with angle, as the second polariser is rotated through 360°, looks as follows:
 
 Applications of Polarisers

Polaroid sunglasses contain vertically oriented polarising filters which

block out any horizontally polarised light

When light is reflected from a reflective surface e.g. the surface of water or a wet road, it
undergoes partial plane polarisation

This means if the surface is horizontal, a proportion of the reflected light will oscillate
more in the horizontal plane than the vertical plane. Therefore, polaroid sunglasses are
useful in reducing the glare on the surface of the water (or any reflective surface) as the
partially-polarised light will be eliminated by the polarising filter

As a result of this, objects under the surface of the water can be viewed more clearly
Interference
 Interference

constructive interference destructive interference

waves in phase waves ½ out of phase

Principle of Superposition of waves States that, when two or more waves meet
(overlap) at a point, the resultant displacement at that point is equal to the sum
of the displacements of the individual waves at that point. The overlapping waves
are said to interfere. This may lead to a resultant wave of either a larger or a
smaller displacement than either of the two component waves.
 Light as a Wave

it works the same for light waves, sound waves, and water waves
Two source interference of circular wave
Young’s Interference Pattern
Producing Interference pattern with sound wave
Producing Interference pattern with Light wave
 Coherent Sources
Wave sources which maintain a constant phase relationship are
called coherent sources. Coherent sources have same frequency
Producing Interference pattern with Light wave

48
Thursday, Sep. 4
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment  = ax/D
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment  = ax/D
Fringe Pattern in Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
 Diffraction
Diffraction is the ability of light waves to bend around
obstacles placed in their path.
A wave passing through a small opening will diffract, as shown. The
size of the gap determine the magnitude that the wave is Diffracted.
 Diffraction

Diffraction is why we can hear sound even though we are

not in a straight line from the source – sound waves will
diffract around doors, corners, and other barriers.

The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength,

which is why we can hear around corners but not see
around them.
Huygens’ Explanation of Diffraction
Diffraction of Light at a Single Slit
Diffraction of Light at Single Slit

asinθ/2 = λ/2
sinθ = λ/a (this is condition
to observe the first dark
fringe at angle θ)
sinθ = nλ/a
N is whole number called
order of dark fringe being
consider
For very small value of θ
θ = nλ/a
Calculations
 Diffraction grating
A Diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number
parallel, identical, very closely spaced slits. If monochromatic light is
incident on this plate a pattern of narrow bright fringes is produced
Diffraction grating (dsinθ = nλ)
The Diffraction grating with white light
Calculations
 Stationary Waves

Stationary waves
are produced by
superposition of
two progressive
waves of equal
amplitude and
frequency,
travelling along the
same line with the
same speed but in
opposite
directions.
Stationary Waves
Stationary Waves on Strings
Modes of vibration of strings (fn = nc/2L), n = 1,2,3..

Picture of Standing Wave Name Structure

  L L = ½λ
f1 = c/2L
                                            
1st Harmonic
or
Fundamental
1 Antinode
2 Nodes

  L=λ
f2 = 2c/2L
                                           
2nd Harmonic
or
1st Overtone
2 Antinodes
3 Nodes

  L =3λ/2
f3 = 3c/2L
                                           
3rd Harmonic
or
2nd Overtone
3 Antinodes
4 Nodes

  L = 2λ
f4 = 4c/2L
                                           
4th Harmonic
or
3rd Overtone
4 Antinodes
5 Nodes

 
5th
L = 5λ/2 Harmonic 5 Antinodes
f5 = 5c/2L
                                             or 6 Nodes
4th Overtone
 Properties of a stationary wave
• Stationary waves have nodes where there is no displacement at
any time.
• In between the nodes are positions called antinodes, where the
displacement has maximum amplitude.
• The wavefront in a stationary wave does not move through
medium; energy is not carried away from the source.
• The amplitude of a stationary wave varies from zero at a node to
maximum at an antinodes, and depends on position along the
wave.
N A N A N

A vibrating loop
l
Stationary wave Vs Progressive wave
Stationary wave in air
 Modes of vibration for a closed tube fn = (2n-1)c/4L

Picture of Standing Wave Name Structure

  L = λ/4
                                            f1 = c/4L
1st Harmonic
or
Fundamental
1 Antinode
1 Node

  L = 3λ/4
                                            f3 =3c/4L
2nd Harmonic
or
1st Overtone
2 Antinodes
2 Nodes

  L = 5λ/4
                                           f5 =5c/4L
3rd Harmonic
or
2nd Overtone
3 Antinodes
3 Nodes

  L = 7λ/4
f = 7c/4L
                                            7
4th Harmonic
or
3rd Overtone
4 Antinodes
4 Nodes

  L = 9λ/4
f =9c/4L
                                            9
5th Harmonic
or
4th Overtone
5 Antinodes
5 Nodes
 Modes of vibration for an open tube (fn = nc/2L)

Picture of Standing Wave Name Structure

  L = λ/2
f1 = c/2L
                                           
1st Harmonic
or
Fundamental
2
Antinodes
1 Node

  L=λ
f2 = 2c/2L
                                           
2nd Harmonic
or
1st Overtone
3
Antinodes
2 Nodes

  L = 3λ/2
f3 = 3c/2L
                                            
3rd Harmonic
or
2nd Overtone
4
Antinodes
3 Nodes

  L = 2λ
f4 =4c/2L
                                           
4th Harmonic
or
3rd Overtone
5
Antinodes
4 Nodes

  L = 5λ/2
f5 = 5c/2L
                                           
5th Harmonic
or
4th Overtone
6
Antinodes
5 Nodes
Stationary wave using Microwaves
Measuring the speed of sound using stationary
waves in free air
 Measuring the speed of sound using
stationary waves by resonance method
Stationary wave explained by interference
Calculations
Question from CIE Final (M/J 2007) [3 mark each]