AGRI 15

INTRODUCTION TO WATER MANAGEMENT AND

IRRIGATION
 INTRODUCTION
WORLD WATER BUDGET

• TOTAL QUANTITY OF WATER IN THE WORLD IS ESTIMATED AS 1,386

M
• 1,337 M. OF WATER IS CONTAINED IN OCEANS AS SALINE WATER
• THE REST 48.5 M IS LAND WATER
• 13.8 M IS AGAIN SALINE
• 34.7 M IS FRESH WATER
• 10.6 M IS BOTH LIQUID AND FRESH
• 24.1 M IS A FROZEN ICE AND GLACIERS IN THE POLAR REGIONS AND
MOUNTAINTOPS
Freshwater composed of 2.5 %
or about (35 M M )
and has the Salient Components:

Lakes and Rivers of about 0.3 %

Groundwater 30.8 %
Glaciers and Permanent Snow Cover 68.9 %

Saltwater has the large portion of the body of water

that composes of about 97.5 % or
1,365,000,000
 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Water on earth exists in a space called the hydrosphere which extends about 15 km up into
the atmosphere and about 1 km down into the lithosphere, the crust of the earth. Water
circulates in the hydrosphere through the maze of paths constituting the hydrologic cycle.
The hydrologic cycle is the central focus of hydrology.
The cycle has no beginning or end, and its many processes occur continuously. As shown
schematically in fig. 1.1.1, water evaporates from the oceans and the land surface to
become part of the atmosphere; water vapor is transported and lifted in the atmosphere
until it condenses and precipitates on the land or the oceans; precipitated water may be
intercepted by vegetation, become overland flow over the ground surface, infiltrate into the
ground, flow through the soil as subsurface flow, and discharge into streams as surface
runoff.
• Much of the intercepted water and surface runoff returns to the atmosphere through evaporation. The
infiltrated water may percolate deeper to recharge groundwater, later emerging in springs or seeping
into streams to form surface runoff, and finally flowing out to the sea or evaporating into the atmosphere
as the hydrologic cycle continues.
•  Estimating the total amount of water on the earth and in the various processes of the hydrologic cycle
has been a topic of scientific exploration since the second half of the nineteenth century. However,
quantitative data are scarce, particularly over the oceans, and so the amounts of water in the various
components of the global hydrologic cycle are still not known precisely.
• Table 1.1.1 lists estimated quantities of water in various forms on the earth. About 96.5 percent of all the
earth's water is in the oceans. If the earth were a uniform sphere, this quantity would be sufficient to
cover it to a depth of about 2.6 km (1.6 mi). Of the remainder, 1.7 percent is in the polar ice, 1.7 percent
in groundwater and only 0.1 percent in the surface and atmospheric water systems.
• The atmospheric water system, the driving force of surface water hydrology, contains only 12,900 km3
of water, or less than one part in 100,000 of all the earth's water.
• Of the earth's fresh water, about two-thirds is polar ice and most of the remainder is groundwater going
down to a depth of 200 to 600 m. Most groundwater is saline below this depth. Only 0.006 percent of
fresh water is contained in rivers.
• Biological water, fixed in the tissues of plants and animals, makes up about 0.003 percent of all fresh
water, equivalent to half the volume contained in rivers. Although the water content of the surface and
atmospheric water systems is relatively small at any given moment, immense quantities of water annually
pass through them.
• The global annual water balance is shown in table 1.1.2; fig. 1.1.1 shows the major components in units
relative to an annual land precipitation volume of 100. It can be seen that evaporation from the land
surface consumes 61 percent of this precipitation, the remaining 39 Percent forming runoff to the oceans,
mostly as surface water. Evaporation from the oceans contributes nearly 90 percent of atmospheric
moisture. Analysis of the flow and storage of water in the global water balance provides some insight into
the dynamics of the hydrologic cycle.
Although the concept of the hydrologic cycle is simple, the phenomenon is enormously
complex and intricate. It is not just one large cycle but rather is composed of many
interrelated cycles of continental, regional, and local extent.

Although the total volume of water in the global hydrologic cycle remains essentially
constant, the distribution of this water is continually changing on continents, in
regions, and within local drainage basins. The hydrology of a region is determined by
its weather patterns and by physical factors such as topography, geology and
vegetation.

Also, as civilization progresses, human activities gradually encroach on the natural

water environment, altering the dynamic equilibrium of the hydrologic cycle and
initiating new processes and events.

For example, it has been theorized that because of the burning of fossil fuels, the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing. This could result in a
warming of the earth and have far-reaching effects on global hydrology.
IMPORTANT PROCESSES IN THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

1. EVAPORATION 6. PERCOLATION
2. TRANSPIRATION (EVAPOTRANSPIRATION) 7. SURFACE RUNOFF
3. CONDENSATION 8. INTERFLOW
4. PRECIPITATION 9. GROUNDWATER FLOW
5. INFILTRATION
 COMPONENTS OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

• Precipitation - all forms of water derives from atmospheric vapor and deposited back
on the earth’s surface. E.G. Rain, hail, mist and snow.
• Infiltration – process of downward movement of through the soil surface.
• Runoff – the portion of precipitation that makes its ways towards streams, lakes or
oceans or groundwater flow. Surface runoff includes water that reaches the stream
without first percolating into the soil. However, runoff generally means surface runoff.
Stream flow includes both surface and subsurface flows.
• Evaporation – conversion of liquid water to vapor into the atmosphere
• Transpiration – process by which water is transferred to the atmosphere by plants as
water vapor for the plant’s growth.
 IMPORTANCE OF SOME HYDROLOGIC DATA

• Precipitation – needed in estimating runoff, planning erosion control measures,

planning for irrigation and drainage, and water conservation in low rainfall
regions.
• Runoff – needed in designing structures and channels that will handle natural
flows of water systems, moisture conservation practices, etc.
 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
• Convective Precipitation – caused by the rising of
warmer, lighter air in colder, denser surroundings.
 Occurs when the energy of the sun heats the surface of
the earth, causing water to evaporate to form water vapor.
When the land heats up, it warms the air above it. This
causes the air to expand and rise. As the air rises, it cools
and condenses. This process of condensation forms
clouds high in the atmosphere. If this process continues,
rainfall will occur. This type of rainfall is widespread in
tropical areas (between the tropic of cancer and tropic of
capricorn) but also in areas such as south East England
during warm sunny spells.
• 2. Orographic Precipitation – results of the mechanical
lifting of the air mass over mountain barriers. - Rain, snow,
or other precipitation produced when moist air is lifted as it
moves over a mountain range. As the air rises and cools,
orographic clouds form and serve as the source of the
precipitation, most of which falls upwind of the mountain
ridge. Some also falls a short distance downwind of the
ridge and is sometimes called spillover. On the lee side of
the mountain range, rainfall is usually low, and the area is
said to be in a rain shadow. Very heavy precipitation
typically occurs upwind of a prominent mountain range that
is oriented across a prevailing wind from a warm ocean .
• Cyclonic Precipitation – associated with the movement of air
masses from high-pressure to low-pressure regions. Results from
the lifting of air converging into a low pressure area, or cyclone
(figure 2).
• A Cyclone is defined as an area of low pressure with a counter-
clockwise (northern hemisphere) circulation of the air around it,
usually inward, towards the center. This type of precipitation can
also be classified into non-frontal and frontal. Non-frontal
precipitation can occur in any kind of barometric depression or
barometric low. The lifting of the air is caused by horizontal
convergence of air flowing from an area of higher pressure into
the low pressure area. Frontal precipitation is the result of lifting
of lighter warm moist air over more dense cold air. Generally,
most storms in the great plains states are cyclonic.
 This type of precipitation can also be classified into
Non-frontal and Frontal.

• Non-frontal – air is lifted through horizontal convergence of the inflow into a low pressure
area.
Non-frontal precipitation can occur in any kind of barometric depression or barometric low.
The lifting of the air is caused by horizontal convergence of air flowing from an area of higher
pressure into the low pressure area.

• Frontal – lifting of warm air over air at the contact zone between air masses having different
characteristics.
Frontal precipitation is the result of lifting of lighter warm moist air over more dense cold air.
Generally, most storms in the great plains states are cyclonic.
 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION

1. Arithmetic Mean – this involves the averaging arithmetically all the rainfall depths measured by
the rain gages within the area.
𝑛

෍ 𝑃𝑖
𝑖=𝐼
P= n
2. Thiessen Molygon – location of the rain gauges are plotted on
the map of the area and stations are connected by straight
lines. Perpendicular bisectors are constructed on each of the
connecting lines thereby forming polygons enclosing each rain
gage.

The average rainfall over the area is then estimated as the area
weighted average for all polygons. Thus, the average precipitation
over a watershed is computed using the equation:
1. Isohyetal – station locations and amounts of rainfall are plotted on the suitable map, and
contours of equal precipitation (isohyets) are then drawn. The equation used are similar to
that of Thiessen method except that the area, Ai is the area under one isohyet, Pi.

Grid-Point Method – computer aided method wherein it averages estimated precipitation at

all points of a superimposed grid.

Inverse Distance Ration Method - for rolling areas and non-uniform distribution of
gages, distance factor fixed by location of gages is used for analysis using this method. It
operates under this principle that the value of points close together in space are more
likely to be similar that with points father apart.
 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
Conservation structures constructed, i.e. To convey runoff, should be designed to
handle the maximum expected events.
• The maximum expected runoff, for example, can be calculated if the maximum
expected rainfall known.
• The maximum expected rainfall depends upon the frequency that taken into
consideration.
• This frequency or reoccurrence interval is defined as the number of years during
which one storm of a given duration and intensity is expected to occur.
 Hydrologic processes are said to fall under stochastic, probabilistic or deterministic
processes. Nevertheless, literature says that most hydrologic processes are stochastic in
nature (more or less).

a. Deterministic process- one in which a definite law of certainty exists.

b. Probabilistic process - governed by chance, time series independent
c. Stochastic process – governed by chance; time dependent

*For simplicity in dealing with hydrologic data, probabilistic process is assumed.

 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION/ PROBABILITY CURVE

1. Normal Distribution – data is more or less normally distributed.

2. Log-normal Distribution – used when there is skewness in the data
distribution
3. Pearson Type III Distribution – considers further the skewness of the
logarithmically transformed hydrologic data, preferred for flood flow
frequency; log-normal distribution is a special case of this method.
4. Gamma Density Function – so far gives the best fit for most stations for 1-
week, 2-weeks, 3-week and monthly rainfall totals of the country.
 RUNOFF
RUNOFF COMPONENT
Other terms:
• Surface Runoff – that which travels over the ground
surface and through the channels to reach the basin (a) Overland flow – that part of
outlet. surface runoff that flows over
• Interflow – that which infiltrates into the soil surface the surface towards the
and moves laterally through the upper soil horizons stream.
towards streams as perched groundwater above major (b) Direct runoff – Surface
runoff plus interflow
groundwater.
(c) Subsurface runoff – same as
• Groundwater Runoff – groundwater discharge into interflow
the stream due to deep percolation of the infiltrated (d) Base flow – same as
water into groundwater aquifers. groundwater runoff
 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF RUNOFF
1. Peak Flow ( qp )– used to determine the magnitude of floods and a valuable consideration
in the design of structures
2. Direct runoff (tp) – used for flood forecasting and the water quality studies; watershed
response time.
3. Runoff Volume (V) – total yield from a storm for a given watershed.
4. Recession Time (tr) – time for surface and interflow to recede; duration of flooding.
5. Base time (tb) – total of time to peak and recession time; (t b) = (tp) + (tr)
6. Base flow – low flow, dependable flow, groundwater discharge
7. Time Lag – the time it takes to by the water to find its way to the river.

- The time interval from the center of mass of rainfall excess to the peak of the
resulting hydrograph.