Impression Evidence: Fingerprints

Jayanthi Abraham
 Fingerprint
• Dermatoglyphics: (from ancient Greek derma=skin, glyph=carving) is the
scientific study of fingerprints, lines, mounts, and shapes of hands.
Refers to the formation of naturally occurring ridges on certain body parts,
namely palms, fingers, soles and toes.

• Dactylography:  the science of using fingerprints to uniquely identify someone.

• Dactyloscopist: Fingerprint expert

• Technique of crime detection by practically every modern law enforcement

agency.
• Other government agencies and many private businesses also use fingerprints
for identification purposes.
 Animal Fingerprints
•  Humans are not the only ones with fingerprints! Some primates,
including gorillas and chimpanzees, and koala bears have their
own unique prints. Gorillas have hands that are quite similar to
human hands.
• % of similarity with
humans
–Koalas44%
–Chimpanzees31%
–Gorillas22%
–Lemurs1%
 Fingerprint
• Hands with fingerprints achieve a better grip than hands without fingertips
do.
• While monkeys and all other primates have very similar fingerprints
presumably inheriting them from the group’s common ancestor
• Koalas are marsupials that have developed these ridges independently of
the primates.
• The fingerprints of koalas are so similar to humans’ that even experts have
trouble telling them apart.
• Additionally, other arboreal animals have evolved dermal ridges on their
feet or tails to allow them better gripping ability. This means that this
adaptation has arisen multiple times.
• The whorls and ridges develop uniquely in each person and are not
genetically determined.
• There are a few famous cases in which criminals have been caught by
using toe prints. The first was at a Scottish bakery in 1952 when a safe-
cracker was identified by the footprints he left in flour.
 Historical Development Forensic Science - fingerprints
• The oldest known documents showing fingerprints date from third century
B.C. China.
• In ancient Babylon (dating back to 1792-1750 B.C.), fingerprints pressed
into clay tablets marked contracts.
• The earliest written study (1684) is Dr. Nehemiah’s paper describing the
patterns he saw on human hands under a microscope, including the presence
of ridges.
• In 1788, Johann Mayer noted that the arrangement of skin ridges is never
duplicated in two persons. He was probably the first scientist to recognize
this fact. (Unique)
• Nine fingerprint patterns were described in 1823 by Jan Evangelist
Purkyn.
• Sir William Herschel (shown at the right), in 1856, began the collection of
fingerprints and noted they were not altered by age. 
 Historical Development Forensic Science - fingerprints
• In 1883, Alphonse Bertillon created the first systematic system of
individual classification & identification. Detailed description of subject,
full- length & profile photographs & a system of precise body
measurements (anthropometry). 
• In 1888, Sir Francis Galton, and Sir Edmund Richard Henry,
developed the fingerprint classification system that is still in use in the
United States.
• In 1891, Iván (Juan) Vucetich improved fingerprint collection. He began
to note measurements on identification cards, as well as adding all ten
fingerprint impressions. He also invented a better way of collecting the
impressions.
• Beginning in 1896, Sir Henry, with the help of two colleagues, created a
system that divided fingerprints into groups. Along with notations about
individual characteristics, all ten fingerprints were imprinted on a card
(called a ten card). 
 Historical Development Forensic Science - fingerprints
Year Scientist Contribution
1684 Dr. Nehemiah’s Dermal ridges
1788 Johann Mayer Unique
1823 Jan Evangelist Purkyn Nine fingerprint patterns
1856 Sir William Herschel not altered by age. 
1883 Alphonse Bertillon Individual classification & identification
1888 Sir Francis Galton & Sir Fingerprint classification system
Edmund Richard Henry
1891 Iván (Juan) Vucetich Measurements on identification cards
invented a better way of collecting the
impressions
1896 Sir Henry Fingerprints into groups, all ten fingerprints were
imprinted on a card (called a ten card). 
 Fingerprints
• All fingers, toes, feet, and palms are covered in small ridges.
• These ridges are arranged in connected units called dermal or
friction ridges.
• These ridges help with our grip on objects. When the ridges press
against things they leave a mark, an impression called a
fingerprint.
• The impression consists of secretions from the sweat glands in the
skin (a combination of water, oils, and salts) and dirt from everyday
activities. 
• Fingerprints are unique, although identical twins usually have
similar fingerprints there are enough differences to make them
unique.
 Structure of Skin

• Skin consists of:

– Outer layer—epidermis
– Inner layer dermis
– Basal layer or papillary dermis in between. New cells generate here
• Basal layer contains DERMAL PAPILLAE that push up on dermis to
create ridges with intricate shapes (fingerprints)
– Dermal papillae-finger like projections
• Fingerprints begin forming near the 10th week of pregnancy – Remain
unchanged except to enlarge during growth
– Eccrine glands = sweat glands
– Sebaceous glands = oil glands 
• Human fingertip surface showing fingerprint ridges, sweat
pores and sweat droplets.
Formation of Fingerprints
2

2months
• 8-10 weeks
• Volar pads
• Friction ridges start to appear
• Friction ridges are series of hills and valleys
furrows on the skin of hands and feet.
• The pressure on the fingertips,
• Although inherited genes will also dictate
the pattern of the fingerprints
 Formation of Fingerprints
• External tissue (skin) consists of
(a) an outer epidermis
(b) an inner dermis
• Fingerprints probably begin forming at the start of the 10th
week of pregnancy.
• Because the basal layer grows faster than the others, it
collapses and folds in different directions, forming intricate
shapes.
 Development of fingerprints
Embryonic development Gestational period after
conception

1 Volar pads form 6-8 week

2 Volar pads begin to 10-12 weeks

recede

3 Skin ridges appears 13th week

4 Fingerprint pattern is 21st week

complete
 Types of Fingerprints
• Categorised by presence and absence of delta
• Delta: tringular intersections of ridges.
Distribution of Classes
  Characteristics of Fingerprints
• There are 3 general fingerprint distinctions:
– ARCH 5%
– WHORL 30%
– LOOP 65% about of the total population 
• Forensic examiners look for the presence of a core (the center of a
whorl or loop) and deltas (triangular regions near a loop).
• A ridge count is another characteristic that distinguishes one
fingerprint from another. The count is made from the center of the
core to the edge of the delta. 
• Basic patterns can be further divided:
– Arch patterns can be plain (4%) or tented (1%).
– Whorl patterns can be plain whorl (24%), central pocket (2%),
– double loop (4%), or accidental (0.01%). 
Loop
 Whorls
• Whorls: 30-35% of the
population has whorls
• All whorl patterns must
have - two deltas
• Four major types: plain,
central pocket, double loop,
accidental
 Arches
• Arches:  Only 5 percent of the population has arches
• Arch ridges tend to enter from one side of the print and
leave out the other side
• Two distinct types
– plain arches 
• Plain arches tend to show a wave like pattern
– tented arches
• Tented arches show a sharp spike at the center of
the arch
• Arches do not have type line, deltas or cores
27
 Characteristics of Fingerprints

J Abraham
  Characteristics of Fingerprints
• Every individual, including identical twins, has a unique fingerprint
resulting from unique ridge patterns called minutiae (because the
details are so small).
• There are about 150 individual ridge characteristics or minutiae on
the average full fingerprint.
• Types of Ridge Characteristics or Minutiae
– Bifurcations - ridges split into two ridges
– Ending ridge - simple straight ridge
– Dot - tiny round ridges
– Short ridge - small isolated segment of ridge
– Enclosure - ridge that forms forks, then a complete circle, then
becomes single ridge again
– Trifurcation - ridge that splits into three ridges 
• Enclosure can be viewed
as two bifurcations facing
each other, and an Island
can be viewed as two
ridge endings, a very short
distance apart.
• Although identical twins usually have similar fingerprints there are
enough differences to make them unique.
• A fingerprint will contain around 175-180 points of information.
• In UK and Australia, they require between 12-16matching points in
order to use it as an evidence against somebody
 Ridgeology
• Ridgeology The study of the uniqueness of friction ridge structures
and their use for personal identification
• Fingerprint is made of a series of ridges and valleys on the surface
of the finger. The uniqueness of a fingerprint can be determined by
the pattern of ridges and valleys as well as the minutiae points,
which are points where the ridge structure changes.
• typical fingerprint: 150 ridges
• A ridge ~ 5 mm long contains appr. 10 ridge units
• Ridge width: ~ 0.5 mm
 Poroscopy
 
• Poroscopy is a method of personal identification through the comparison
of the impressions of sweat pores (present on friction ridges of palmar and
plantar surfaces). The method was discovered and developed by Edmond
Locard in 1912.
• Average number of pores / cm ridge ~ 9-18 pores
• Pores do not disappear, move or generate over time
 Edgeoscopy
• Edgeoscopy is a method of identification through the examination of the
unique details and characteristics found along the edges of individual
fingerprint ridges.
 Unusual fingerprints
Psoriasis
Named from the Greek word for “itch”, psoriasis is a persistent
skin condition. The skin becomes inflamed, producing red,
thickened areas with silvery scales, most often found on the scalp,
elbows, knees, and lower back.

Fragmenting
The center of the print is fragmenting. 
Adermatoglyphia
• Individuals born without fingerprints
• These individuals have a genetic
mutation on the SMARCAD1 gene
region which causes the process of
dermatoglyph development to be skipped
during foetal development!
• It is autosomal dominant condition,
which means that you only need one of
your parents to have this gene mutation
for it to be passed on to you.
• The condition is called adermatoglyphia,
and unsurprisingly it used to be called
immigration delay disease.
 Absence of fingerprints
•  Naegeli–Franceschetti–Jadassohn syndrome 
• Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticularis, which are both
forms of ectodermal dysplasia, also have no
fingerprints.
• Both of these rare genetic syndromes produce other
signs and symptoms as well, such as thin, brittle hair.