LEADERSHIP & ORGANISATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR
 lecture CONTENTS
Part (UNIT) Three: groups, teams and
interactions IN ORGANISATIONS

• Leadership and MANAGEMENT

• THE nature of workgroups and teams in organisations
• Communication
LECTURE (unit) eight:
communication
(GROUPS, TEAMS AND
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS)
Lecture OBJECTIVES

After studying this lecture, you should be able

to:
Outline the concept of communication.
explain the communication process.
describe the four level of communication.
Discuss the barriers to effective
communication
 Explain how to gender influences
communication in organisations
 introduction
Communication is when we send and receive
messages – written, spoken or acted; verbal or
nonverbal.
It can be intrapersonal, interpersonal, group or
mass;
it is a process, “an interaction that allows
individuals, groups, and institutions to share ideas”
(Hanson, 2011: 7).
It relates to how we interact with the world around
us through messages: the spoken or written word,
actions (body language, gestures, signals and signs,
dance) or images (photographs, paintings), etc.
introduction

It involves meaning: the interpretation or

significance we give to verbal and nonverbal
symbols or cues.
In modern organisations, the process of
dialogue and communication have become
critical core skills for managers and non
mangers `alike” (Bratton et al., 2007:322)
It is therefore not surprising that organisations
have been described as “conversations”.
introduction

Conversation has been conceived to include:

everyone who is aware of, involved with or
affected by the organisation - workers, managers,
leaders, customers (actual and potential), payers,
regulators, competitors, and neighbours.
It includes myriad sub-conversations that vary in
such characteristics as numbers of participants,
duration (from longstanding to one-time events).
Communication in formal organisations however,
is a more complex process than simply information
disclosure.
 GOAL OF COMMUNICATION
The goal of communication is to make meaning
in order to achieve understanding.
Communication tries to make meaning by using
words (language) or action (symbols and signs).
However, meaning is unique to the individual as
people understand things differently or attach
different meanings to the same things.
The goal is to ensure an overlap of meaning
such that the meanings you attach to things will
be the same as those of people you communicate
with.
 DEFINITIONS

‘The process by which

‘The sharing of information
between two or more individuals
or groups to reach a common
understanding’
information is transmitted
and understood between
two or more people’
(Bratton et al., 2007:322)

(George and Jones, 2008:461)

DEFINITIONS

‘exchange of messages between

persons for the purpose of
constructing common meanings”
(Vecchio, 2006: 294)
‘the process by which
people convey and
receive information to
and from each other’
(Martin and Fellenz,
2010: 260)
 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 The communication process requires at least
two people – a sender and a receiver.
 communication is seen as a set of discrete
messages or bits sent from sender to receiver.
The sender initiates the communication – tries
to transfer information expressing facts, ideas or
feeling by creating a message using symbols such
as words, actions or expressions .
The sender transmits these symbols to the
receiver by some medium – visually, orally or by
some other channel.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

From the transmitted message, the receiver

attempts to reconstruct the sender’s original
thought.
When the receiver responds to the sender,
the roles are reversed.
The flow of information between parties is
continuous and reciprocal, each responding
by giving feed.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
A MODEL OF THE COMMUNICATON PROCESS

Communication is often difficult to achieve

because it requires a complex sequence of steps:
the generation of idea (communicator) that
results in:
encoding a message consisting of symbols that
will convey the desired information (the encoded
process is the message, verbal or non verbal).
The encoded message is then transmitted
through one or more channels (verbal, written or
electronic non-verbal).
A MODEL OF THE COMMUNICATON PROCESS

 Reception is then followed by decoding

(involves interpretation), which involves
deciphering the message.
 Understanding results from the decoding
process. The final step is the receiver’s
response to the communication effort.
 Methods of communication within organisations

Four types of communication media exist:

Written e.g. the use of
memos, letters, reports
as well as company
procedures
Electronic – with an
increasing in the availability and sophistication of electronics,
the opportunity to communicate in new ways has emerged
(e.g. email,
teleconferencing,
fax machine,
internet and intranet)
Methods of communication within organisations

Verbal/Oral (the sharing of information by

means of words).
 Non-verbal (the sharing
of information by means of
facial expressions,
body language/posture,
and mode of dressing).
Nonverbal communication:
 Body language
 Physical appearance and grooming
 Non-verbal
Nonverbal communication:
Nodding or shaking of the head
Winking
Raising an eyebrow
Touching or hugging
Smiling or laughing
Frowning or making
other facial gestures
Silence, etc.
Everything we do or do not do communicates.

These can occur through formal or informal channels:

 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Formal channels refer to job related activities –

email, meetings, voicemail, etc. (i.e. a
communication process that follows an
organisation’s chain of command).
Communication can flow in different directions

Downward communication:
Travels from the upper levels of the
organisation to the lower levels and it includes
management directives, job instructions and
directives, emails, and letters and feedback on
individual performance.
 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION Formal
channels
 Upward communication
Travels from the lower levels of the
organisation to the upper levels and it includes
request for assistance, and reports from teams
and various employee involvement
arrangements.
 Lateral (horizontal) communication
Consists of messages sent between employees
who occupy the same level within an
organisation.
Downward, Upward and Horizontal Communications in a Retail Store
CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Informal channels refer to culture in

the workplace and include personal and
social messages (i.e. a communication
process that follows unofficial means of
communication).
The informal communication network is
termed the grapevine (usually based on
social relations in which employees talk
about work)
 Grapevine characteristics

The grapevine has several unique features such as:

It transmit information rapidly in all directions
throughout the organisation.
News is relatively accurate, possibly because the
parties tend to use media-rich communication
methods (e.g. face-to-face) and are motivated to
communicate effectively.
It relies on social relations, so it is more active
where employees have similar background and are
able to communicate easily with each other.
Grapevine characteristics

It is also more active when employees are

anxious and information from the formal
channels does not satisfy their need to know.
Even when the formal network provides
some information about a particular
situation, employees will participate in the
grapevine because social interaction
relieves some of their anxiety.
 Grapevine

Advantages
Grapevine helps employees to make sense of
their workplace when the information is not
available through the formal channels.
It is the main conduit through which
organisational stories and other symbols of the
organisation’s culture are communicated.
It is an important social process that bonds
people together and fulfils their need for
affiliation.
 Grapevine

Disadvantages
Morale tumbles when management is slower than the
grapevine in communicating information.
Grapevine information may become so distorted that
it escalates rather than reduce employee anxiety.
This is particular true as the original information is
transmitted several people rather than one or two
people to several listeners.
Question:
What do you think, should the grapevine be
encouraged, tolerated, or quashed?
 LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
The four main levels of communication are:
Intrapersonal, Interpersonal,
Group and Mass communication.
It has been suggested that the four levels of
communication can be seen as a pyramid
(McQuail, 2005) - large base - intrapersonal
communication – where everyone involved is able
to send messages; through interpersonal
communication; and group communication to a
peak of mass communication (only a relatively
small number of individuals and/or organisations
are able to transmit messages to a larger audience).
 LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION

Intrapersonal
Communication within oneself: “This is how
we think and how we assign meaning to all
the messages and events that surround our
lives” (Hanson, 2011: 7).
Wondering about the appropriateness of an
intended action.
Thinking of what to wear for this or any other
event.
Smiling at the thought of a sumptuous lunch.
 Intrapersonal

Feeling elated about your promotion.

Thinking of what to do to someone who has
offended you.
Imagining a proposal from someone you met a
month ago.
Considering your reactions to a marriage proposal,
etc.
Feedback is instantaneous and constant as we
continue to reflect on “what we have done and
how we will react” to given situations (Hanson,
2011: 8).
 LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal
 Interpersonal communication: engaging in one-on-
one communication with another person verbally or
nonverbally.
 It “can be a conversation with a friend or a hug that
tells another person that you care” (Hanson, 2011: 8).
 It can be face-to-face conversation or mediated by
technology to create some emotional or psychological
distance:
 Interpersonal

A telephone conversation
A text message
An e-mail message
A birthday card.
Just as in intrapersonal communication,
feedback in interpersonal communication is
instantaneous.
It is given in various forms – verbal and
nonverbal - including the following:
Interpersonal

Nodding or shaking of the head

Raising an eyebrow
Touching certain parts of the body
such as the arm or hand
Responding to questions
Smiling or laughing
Frowning or making other facial
expressions, etc.
 LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION

Group communication
Communication in which one person communicates
with a group or an audience where the roles of
communicator and audience can constantly change.
There is usually a leader and each member of the
communication team has an opportunity to respond to
the leader.
Groups can be small or large.
Feedback is enhanced within small groups but limited
in large groups.
 LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
Mass communication
 It is a society-wide communication sent to
large heterogeneous audiences most of whom
are not known to the communicator.
 One person or institution communicates with
many through technology including:
television interviews; crime or other news in
the media; popular novels on the bookshelf;
radio announcements, etc.
 Feedback is very minimal in mass
communication.
 Internal/employee communication

Internal/employee communication is a process by which

messages are created and exchanged within an
organisation – a network of interdependent relationships
(Goldhaber, 1979).
It is directed to and among internal publics: senior
management, senior members, senior staff, junior staff,
etc.
It occurs between different levels (a hierarchical model)
or sections (a non-hierarchical model):
Internal/employee communication cont’d

senior management; senior management

to staff at various levels; staff to senior
management; and from staff to staff, etc.
 Management of communication to
create good relationships between
management and other employees - the
exchange of information and ideas
within an organisation (Bovée & Trill,
2000).
Internal/employee communication cont’d

 “Internal communication is about creating an

atmosphere of respect for all employees within
the organization” (Argenti, 2003: 128).
 It comprises all formal and informal
communication taking place at all levels of an
organisation (Kalla, 2005).
 Internal/employee communication attempts to
present staff/employees with information on
two levels, themes: the relational element
and the content element which may not be
mutually exclusive.
Internal/employee communication cont’d

Relational efforts aim to improve relationships

among employees of the organisation at all levels.
Programmes and activities initiated in this regard
often focus on morale and relationship-building.
Content efforts help staff to be more effective and
efficient in production and service delivery.
Programmes under the content element focus on:
Internal/employee communication cont’d

 developing employee knowledge of the

organisation, its products or core business
and services;
 managing the work environment; and
 becoming more concerned with service
quality and delivery.
 Both themes of staff/employee
communication lead to enhanced
performance and productivity.
 TOOLS & CHANNELS USED

Tools and channels of employee communication vary

according to such factors as the type, size and culture
of the organisation concerned.
They may be discussed according to the type of
communication used -- interpersonal, group or mass.
At the interpersonal level, the following may be
considered:
Face-to-face communication; Motivation (for good and
exceptional performance)
Letters or memos; Notice boards;
Suggestion boxes; The intranet; etc.
TOOLS & CHANNELS USED cont’d

At the group level, we may consider

the following: intra and
interdepartmental meetings;
Seminars, Symposia, Workshops,
Durbars; etc.
Team mentions/rewards; Newsletters,
brochures, reporter and other internal
publications of the organisation , etc.
 TOOLS & CHANNELS USED cont’d

At the mass communication level, we may consider all the tools
and channels available:
Radio - Newspapers
Television- New Media (internet)
Team mentions/rewards;
Newsletters, brochures, reporter and other internal publications of
the
organisation , etc.
 COMMUNICATING AT DIFFERENT LEVELS AT
WORK

Communicating with superiors

Is the matter for communication formal or
informal?
If informal, use familiar channels but with
respect.
If formal, use appropriate channels – durbars,
meetings, face-to-face upon booked
appointments, etc.
Use verbal: spoken or written – letters, notes,
etc.
Communicating with superiors
 Minimise non-verbal communication as much
as possible – mind your body language.
 Show respect and courtesy through your choice
of words and demeanour
 Show deference even if the officer is cordial
with you
 Be honest and give the full facts (don’t attempt
to lie: she/he knows when you are telling lies)
 Show gratitude for the opportunity to have
audience.
COMMUNICATING AT DIFFERENT LEVELS AT
WORK

Communicating with colleagues

 Is the matter of communication formal or
informal?
 If informal, use familiar channels but with
respect
 If formal, use appropriate channels –
meetings, face-to-face, phone, memos,
letters, emails, etc.
 Use verbal: spoken or written – letters,
emails, the intranet, notes, etc.
Communicating with colleagues

 Make optimal use of non-verbal communication

to complement what you communicate verbally
 Be honest and truthful to build healthy
relationships
 Show respect and courtesy in spite of familiarity
 Avoid being overly familiar – allow the
relationship to develop naturally or gradually.
 Avoid taking each other for granted by word and
deed.
COMMUNICATING AT DIFFERENT LEVELS AT
WORK

Communicating with subordinates

 Is the matter of communication formal or
informal?
 If informal, use familiar channels appropriately
 If formal, use appropriate channels – durbars,
meetings, face-to-face, letters, memos, intranet,
etc.
 Use a lot more verbal communication: more
written than spoken – instructions, letters,
notes, etc.
 Communicating with subordinates

 Minimise non-verbal communication as

much as possible to avoid misunderstanding
 Be courteous and decorous
 As much as possible, avoid screaming,
shouting, etc.
 Show tolerance and patience for differences
in comprehension and use easy-to-
understand sentences
 Let’s treat subordinates as human beings.
COMMUNICATING AT DIFFERENT LEVELS AT
WORK cont’d

From senior management to employees

Is the matter for communication formal or
informal? Although there is informal
communication at this level, much communication
is formal
If so, use verbal: but more written than spoken –
instructions, manuals, notes, letters, memos,
emails, etc.
Use appropriate channels – durbars, meetings,
face-to-face, seminars, workshops, letters, memos,
publications, etc.
 From senior management to employees

Use communication to build staff knowledge of

the organisation (content) and develop good
relations (relational)
Be clear, concise and straight to the point to
achieve understanding
If informal, use familiar channels – face-to-face
dialogue, intranet/email, phone conversations, etc.
Minimise non-verbal communication as much as
possible noting that both actions and inactions do
communicate
 COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE

Diversity in organisations:
 It is believed that people communicated
differently because of their culture, their gender,
etc. and how they have learned to perceive the
world.
 Cultures differ in both their verbal and non verbal
communications. Even when people speak the
same language, interpreting voice intonation can
be problematic. In some cultures, the tones
changes depending on the context, such as home,
a social situation or work.
COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE cont’d

 Also the use of words, space (e.g. torching

and embracing in work environment) and time.
e.g. in individualistic cultures (such as US,
Canada and Germany), people are less able to
agree or resolve conflict without resorting to
written contracts.
Explicit written and verbal messages are the
norm.
COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE cont’d

 Canadian are taught to maintain eye contact with

the speaker to show respect and interest, yet this
is considered rude to some Asian and Middle
East people, who are taught to show respect by
looking down when a supervisor or older person
is talking to them.
 Collectivist cultures (China, Japan and Ghana)
emphasise collaboration and personal
relationships are important in doing business.
Informal and unwritten contracts are the norm.
 COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE cont’d

 non verbal communication, non verbal cues

and silence are specific to particular cultures
and may have a completely different meaning
to people raised in other cultures.
e.g. people in Japan interpret more of a
message’s meaning from non verbal cues and
therefore a lot of Japanese is either unspoken or
communicated through body language.
 COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE cont’d

Ghanaians shake their head from side to side to say

“no”, but this means “l understand” to some people
from India.
In Japan, people tend to remain silent for a few
seconds after someone has spoken, to contemplate
what has just been said as a sign of respect
because to them silence is an important part of
communication.
In contrast, most people in North America view
silence as a lack of communication and often
interpret long breaks as a sign of disagreement.
COMMUNICATION AND GENDER

Gender influences communications: ‘She said,

he said’
There appear to be differences between the
conversational styles of men and women,
which can be summarised in terms of
‘report’ (conversation is impersonal and
efficient conversation exchange) and
‘rapport’ (involves relationship building)
 COMMUNICATION AND GENDER cont’d

 Men tend to see conversation as a tool (they use it

to exchange information, accomplish a task offer
advice or advance their status)
 e.g. Men are more likely to view conversations as
negotiations of relative status and therefore assert
their power by directly giving advice to others –
you should do the following;
 men also tend to interrupt women and also
dominate the talk time in conversation with
women;
COMMUNICATION AND GENDER cont’d

 women see it as a basis of rapport (as

they speak the language of cooperation,
connection and intimacy, seeking
empathy, nurture and support. e.g.
Women use indirect requests, apologise
more often and seek advice from others
more quickly than men; Women are
more sensitive to nonverbal cues in
face-to-face meetings.
 COMMUNICATION AND GENDER cont’d

 Studies have indicated that when dealing with

a personnel problems, male managers may
use command structures whereas female
managers tend to use a more open
communication style, which centres on
cooperation and request,
 male managers use their position of power
when dealing with female employees whereas
when dealing with male employees
communication strategies.
 COMMUNICATION AND GENDER cont’d
A woman goes to bed...
“Mom and Dad were watching TV when Mom said, "I'm
tired, and it's getting late. I think I'll go to bed."
She went to the kitchen to make sandwiches for the next
day's lunches, rinsed out the dessert bowls, took meat out of
the freezer for supper the following evening, checked the
cereal box levels, filled the sugar container, put spoons and
bowls on the table and started the coffee pot for brewing the
next morning. She then put some wet clothes in the dryer,
put a load of clothes into the wash, ironed a shirt and sewed
on a loose button. She picked up the game pieces left on the
table and put the telephone book back into the drawer.
 COMMUNICATION AND GENDER cont’d

She watered the plants, emptied a wastepaper

basket and hung up a towel to dry. She yawned and
stretched and headed for the bedroom.
She stopped by the desk, wrote a note to the
teacher, counted out some cash for the school
outing, and pulled a textbook out from under the
chair. She signed a birthday card for a friend,
addressed the envelope and wrote a quick list for
the supermarket. She put both near her purse.
 COMMUNICATION AND GENDER cont’d

Mom then creamed her face, put on moisturizer,

brushed and flossed her teeth and trimmed her nails.
Hubby called, "I thought you were going to bed."
"I'm on my way," she said. She put some water into
the dog's bowl and put the cat outside, then made
sure the doors were locked. She looked in on each
of the children and turned out a bedside lamp, hung
up a shirt, threw some dirty socks in the laundry
basket, and had a brief conversation with one child
still up doing homework.
 COMMUNICATION AND GENDER cont’d
In her own room, she set the alarm, laid out
clothing for the next day, and straightened up the
shoe rack. She added three things to her list of
things to do for the next day.
About that time, the hubby
turned off the TV and
announced to no one in
particular,
"I'm going to bed.
" And he did.
 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

 Noise: anything that interferes with the

communication process including poor
handwriting, background noise in a busy office
that makes it difficult to hear a telephone
conversation that and use of jargons
 Filtering : occurs when a sender withhold part
of the message because they think the receiver
does not need the information or will not want
to receive it, e.g. being a bearer of bad news.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Related to filtering is information distortion –

the change in meaning that occurs when a
message travels through series of different
senders to a receiver.
Poor listening: many people enjoy talking more
than they enjoy listening to others
Lack of or inappropriate feedback: Sometimes
communication breaks down because receivers
either fail to provide feedback or provide
feedback in an inappropriate manner.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Rumours and grapevine: unofficial

information on topics that are important or
interesting to an organisation’s members.
Rumours often spread through the gravevine –
a set of informal communication pathways
through which unofficial information flows.
Workforce diversity: might become a barrier
to communication when the members of a
group or organisation don’t see eye to eye or
fail to respect and appreciate each other’s
points of view.
 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION cont’d
 Differences in for example:
(1) gender (she said, he said) and
(2) cross cultural linguistic styles (a person’s characteristic
of speaking including tone of voice, speed, use of pauses,
directness or indirectness, use of questions and jokes and
willingness to take credit for ideas). e.g. cultures differ in their
verbal and non-verbal languages : It is possible to identify two
main types of culture (Hall, 1976). Low context cultures such as
USA, Switzerland, Scandinavia, Germany rely on written/verbal
messages, linear clock time and are individualist in nature; and
High context cultures such as Korea, Japan, Arab and African
countries rely on informal/unwritten contracts, have a
polychromic view of time and are more collectivist than
individualist in nature.
 SELECTING AN APPROPRIATE
COMMUNICATION MEDIUM/
1. Information richness – the amount of
information a medium can carry and the extent
to which it enables senders and receivers to
reach a common understanding.
 e.g. face-to-face meetings have the highest
data-carrying capacity because the sender
 simultaneously transmit verbal and non verbal
signals,
 the receiver can provide immediate feedback,
and the information exchange can be
customized to suit the situation.
 SELECTING AN APPROPRIATE
COMMUNICATION MEDIUM/

 In contrast, some reports and other impersonal

documents represents the leanest media
because they allow only one form of data
transmission (e.g. written),
 the sender does not receive timely feedback
from the receiver, and the information
exchange is standardised for everyone.
2. Use of information technology e.g.
intranet/internet e.g. the use of phones, voice mail,
videoconferencing, and e-meetings.
 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is important to all human beings for many

reasons:
 Helps convey meaning
to others
 Enables organisations
sell products and services
 Creates cohesiveness in society
 Helps combat suspicion and feelings of
mistrust/distrust
 Enables education and information dissemination
 Helps with entertainment, etc.
Please note: We cannot choose not to communicate
because!
 summary
According to the
functionalist
perspective
communication
is a
pipeline
(metaphorical –
metaphor of the
machine)
that shape
and determine
the operation of every organisation.
 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
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