Terms

VARIABLES
• A random variable is a statistic or an individual observation that varies in
a random manner. A discrete random variable is a random variable that
can assume only a finite or countably infinite number of possible values
(usually integers), whereas a continuous random variable is one that can
theoretically assume any value in a specified interval (i.e., continuum),
although measuring instruments limit the number of decimal places in
measurements.
• univariate data; that is, data on a single random variable. In statistics,
“multivariate” refers to more than one response or dependent variable,
not just more than one variable of interest; researchers in other fields
often use the term differently, in reference to the independent variables.
Basic Probability Measures
1. Outcome: A result or observation from an experiment, which cannot
be predicted with certainty.
2. Event: Subset of a set of all possible outcomes.
3. Probability: The relative frequency at which an event occurs in a large
number of identical experiments.
4. Random variable: A function which assigns real numbers to the
outcomes of an experiment.
5. Statistics: A function (itself a random variable) of one or more
random variables, that does not depend upon any unknown
parameters
Basic Statistics
• The cumulative distribution function (cdf) F is a unique function which gives the probability that a random variable X takes on
values less than or equal to some value x. In other word, F(x) = P(X ≤ x).
• The probability density function (pdf) f is the probability that X takes on the value x; that is, f (x) = P(X = x).
• The expected value of a random variable X is given by
Discrete: Continuous:
• the variance of a random variable X, denoted by σ2, is a measure of how the values of X are spread about the mean value. It is
defined as σ2 = E (X − µ)2 .
• t is calculated for discrete and continuous random variables, respectively, by

• The standard deviation of X, denoted by σ, is the square root of the variance.

• The skewness coefficient of a random variable X is a measure of the symmetry of the distribution of X about its mean value µ,
and is defined as Sc = E(X − µ)3 / σ3 .
• The skewness is zero for a symmetric distribution, negative for a left-tailed distribution, and positive for a right-tailed
distribution.
• Given a random sample of size n from a distribution, the sample mean and sample variance are defined as, respectively
• Similarly, the kurtosis coefficient of a random variable X is a measure
of how much of the mass of the distribution is contained in the tails,
and is defined as

• Obviously, kurtosis is always positive; however, larger values represent

distributions with heavier tails.
Reliability Measures
• Reliability is the probability of success or the probability that the
system will perform its intended function under specified design
limits.
• More specifically, reliability is the probability that a product or system
will operate properly for a specified period of time (design life) under
the design operating conditions (such as temperature, voltage, etc.)
without failure. In other words, reliability can be used as a measure of
the system’s success at providing its function properly. Reliability is
one of the quality characteristics that consumers require from
manufacturers.
Basics of Collecting Data
• In an observational study, we observe and measure specific
characteristics, but we don’t attempt to modify the subjects being
studied.
• In an experiment, we apply some treatment and then proceed to
observe its effects on the subjects. (Subjects in experiments are called
experimental units)
• Whether conducting an observational study or an experiment, it is
important to select the sample of subjects in such a way that the
sample is likely to be representative of the larger population.
Metode Sampling
• A simple random sample of n subjects is selected in such a way that
every possible sample of the same size n has the same chance of
being chosen.
• In a random sample members from the population are selected in
such a way that each individual member in the population has an
equal chance of being selected.
• A probability sample involves selecting members from a population in
such a way that each member of the population has a known (but not
necessarily the same) chance of being selected.
Contoh
• Sampling Senators Each of the 50 states sends two senators to Congress, so
there are exactly 100 senators. Suppose that we write the name of each state on
a separate index card, then mix the 50 cards in a bowl, and then select one card.
If we consider the two senators from the selected state to be a sample, is this
result a random sample? Simple random sample? Probability sample?
• The sample is a random sample because each individual senator has the same
chance (one chance in 50) of being selected. The sample is not a simple random
sample because not all samples of size 2 have the same chance of being chosen.
(For example, this sampling design makes it impossible to select 2 senators from
different states.) The sample is a probability sample because each senator has a
known chance (one chance in 50) of being selected.
Other Sampling Methods
Types of Observational Studies
Design of Experiment
1. Use randomization to assign subjects to different groups.
2. Use replication by repeating the experiment on enough subjects so
that effects of treatments or other factors can be clearly seen.
3. Control the effects of variables by using such techniques as blinding
and a completely randomized experimental design
Sampling Errors
• A sampling error is the difference between a sample result and the
true population result; such an error results from chance sample
fluctuations.
• A nonsampling error occurs when the sample data are incorrectly
collected, recorded, or analyzed (such as by selecting a biased sample,
using a defective measurement instrument, or copying the data
incorrectly).