Fluid Flow Continuity Equation (Law of Conservation of Mass)

1 2

Mr = ρ x A x Vel Where:
= A x vel ρ = mass density
υ A = cross-sect. area
= Vr Vel = velocity
υ υ = specific volume
Vr = volumetric flow rate
Mr = mass flow rate
Conservation of Energy
- energy can neither be created nor destroyed only transformed.
- first law of thermodynamics.

First Corollary of the 1st Law

Closed system (non-flow system)

1. Conservation of energy applied to closed system (Non-flow closed system)

Rigid
body

Q Q

Q= U = U2– U1 Q= U + WK

Energy Balance:
Initial Energy + Energy Entering – Energy Leaving = Final Energy
 QLeaving

Δ U = U₂ - U₁

WEntering

QEntering

Initial Energy + Energy Entering (Q or W) - Energy Leaving (Q or W) = Final Energy

U₁ + QE + WE - QL = U₂
Second Corollary of the 1st law
Open system (steady flow)
1. Conservation of energy applied to open system (Steady-flow open system)
- aside from the energy transfers in the form of heat or work, the mass entering the system
brings in some energy with it, and likewise the mass leaving the system carries away some energy.
Due to these energy transfers, the energy of the system may change
Q
m1
U1, PE1, KE1, Wf1, Wc

m2
U2, PE2, KE2, and Wf2
In general, a unit mass of moving fluid possesses the following forms of energy:
a. Internal Energy ,u
b. Potential energy, gZ
c. Kinetic energy , V2/2
Thus the total energy possessed by a moving fluid is: u + gZ + V2/2
Some energy is required to push the fluid into or out of the system and this is known as the flow
energy or flow work. It is equal to the product of pressure and volume (p x v). The fluid is required
to possess this additional energy to cross the boundary.

Therefore, the total energy carried by a fluid crossing the system boundary is:
= u + gZ + V2/2 + pv
= (u + pv) + gZ + V2/2
= h + gZ + V2/2

For Steady flow open system:

- a flow process is said to be steady if,
o mass flow rate at inlet = mass flow rate at exit
o properties do not change with time

Sum of all the energy = Sum of all the energy

entering the system leaving the system

m(h1 + gZ1 + V1 2/ 2) + [Q or W entering] = m(h2 + gZ2 + V2 2/ 2) + [Q or W leaving]

where: m = mass flow rate

Q = rate of heat transfer, Watts
W = rate of work transfer, Watts

H1 + PE1 + KE1 + (Q or W)entering = H2 + PE2 + KE2 + (Q or W)leaving

Alternate Method:

m1

WkSF

U1 m2
PE1 Q
KE1
Wf1 U2
PE2
KE2
Wf2
WkSF = Q – U– PE – KE – Wf
WkSF = Q – H– PE – KE

Sign Convention:
Q - positive if added/supplied to the system
- negative if rejected/loss from the system
WkSF - positive if produced by the system
- negative if supplied on the system
Closed System, Non-flow
Initial Energy + Energy entering – Energy leaving = Final Energy
U₁ + (Q or W)enter – (Q or W)out = U₂

Open System, Steady Flow, Steady State

Sum of Energy entering = Sum of Energy leaving
m₁(h₁ + v₁²/₂ + gZ₁) + (Q or W)in = m₂(h₂ + v₂²/₂ + gZ₂) + (Q or W)out
H₁ + KE₁ + PE₁ + (Q or W)in = H₂ + KE₂ + PE₂ + (Q or W)out
Alternate Method:

m1

WkSF

U1 m2
PE1 Q
KE1
Wf1 U2
PE2
KE2
Wf2
WkSF = Q – U– PE – KE – Wf
WkSF = Q – H– PE – KE

Sign Convention:
Q - positive if added/supplied to the system
- negative if rejected/loss from the system
WkSF - positive if produced by the system
- negative if supplied on the system
Alternate Method:
Energy Entering = Energy Leaving
H1 + PE1 + KE1 + Q = H2 + PE2 + KE2 + WSF
Solving for WSF:
WSF = (H1 – H2)+ (PE1 – PE2) + (KE1 – KE2) + Q
WSF = Q + (H1 – H2) + (PE1 – PE2) + (KE1 – KE2)
WSF = Q – (H2 – H1) – (PE2 – PE1) – (KE2 – KE1)
WSF = Q – (∆H) – (∆PE) – (∆KE)
IDEAL GAS LAW:

- Structured behavior of some gases with respect to pressure, volume and the temperature.

1. Boyle’s law – states that when the absolute temperature of a gas is held constant during
thermodynamic change of state, the absolute pressure is inversely proportion with its
volume.
T=C P∞1/V V∞1/P
P2 / P1 = V1 / V2
P1V1 = P2V2
2. Charles’ law – states that when the absolute pressure of a gas is held constant during
thermodynamic change of state, the absolute temperature is directly proportion with its
volume.
P=C T∞V
T2 / T1 = V2 / V1
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
3. Gay Lussac’s law – states that when the volume of a gas is held constant during
thermodynamic change of state, the absolute temperature is directly proportion with its
absolute pressure.
V=C T2 / T1 = P2 / P1
P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
PROPERTIES OF GASES

Empirical laws have been developed for gases that correlate the physical variables. An
equation which relates the pressure p, specific volume v, and absolute temperature T of a substance
is called an equation of state. When such an equation is simple and permits evaluation with
reasonable accuracy, it provides a convenient way to represent p-V-T or other property data.

The most widely used equation of state is the ideal gas equation, which derives from
Boyle’s law and Charles’ Law:
pV = nRoT

Where: p = absolute pressure, N/m2

V = volume, m3
n = number of moles of gases
Ro = the universal gas constant, 8314 J/kg mole-K
T = absolute temperature, K

In engineering applications, it is usually more convenient to deal with the amount of gas in
terms of mass rather than moles. From a study of physics we note that
n = mass of the gas / molecular weight = m / M

Substituting for n in equation pV = [m/M] RoT

= m(Ro/M)T

pV = m R T
where R = Ro / M

R is the individual gas constant , J/kg-K.

 An ideal gas is one which follows the ideal gas equation. An ideal gas is sometimes referred
to as a perfect gas, the two terms being interchangeable. In 1840, the British physicist James Joule
conducted experiments with many gases and concluded that, for an ideal gas, the internal energy
is a function of temperature only. This statement is known as Joule’s Law.

The ideal gas equation is sufficiently accurate for many gases when the state is in the
supercritical region. The ideal gas equation is sometimes referred to as the characteristics gas
equation. The equation can be written in different form as shown:

pV = mRT Dividing both side by m, pv = RT or p = ρRT

Where v = the specific volume, m3/kg

Ρ = 1/v = density, kg/m3

From the equation pV = mRT ,

R is constant for a given gas and m is constant for a closed system. Then pV / T = constant

This is true at any state for a closed system,

P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2 = P3V3 / T3

Example 1

Determine the mass of oxygen contained in a cylinder of internal diameter 300mm and length of
1.5m. The pressure gives a reading of 80 bar. The cylinder is at room temperature of 30 .
Data: d = 0.3 m; L = 1.5 m; p = 80 bar = 8.0 MPa; t = 30 .

Solution:
The ideal gas equation is pV = mRT
where;
P = absolute pressure V = volume of oxygen
= 8.0 MPa = (π/4) d2 L =0.7854 (0.32)(1.5) = 0.106 m3

R = gas constant for oxygen T = = 30 + 273 = 303K

= Ro / M = 9314 / 32 = 259.8 J/kg-K
= 0.2598 KJ/kg-K

Substituting in the ideal gas equation

(8,000 KPa) x (0.106 m3) = m x (0.2598 KJ/kg-K) x (303 ºK)

On simplification, m = 10.772 kg
Mass of oxygen in the cylinder = 10.772 kg
Example 2

In a central air conditioning system, 72 kg per hour of air at 15oC and 1.1 bar enters a rectangular
duct of 200mm x 500mm.
(a.) Find the volume flow rate of air at the entrance to the duct
(b.) Determine the air velocity at this section.

Data: m = 72/3600 = 0.02 kg/s; T = 15 + 273 = 288K; P = 0.11 MPa;

Cross section of the duct = 0.2m x 0.5m = 0.1m2

Solution:
(a.) The ideal gas equation is
pV = mRT
From the property tables for air, gas constant R = 287 J/kg-K = 0.287 KJ/kg-K

Substituting the values

(110 KPa) x V = (0.02 kg/s) x (0.287 KJ/kg-K) x (288 ºK)
On simplification
V = 0.015 m3/s = 54 m3/h
Volume flow rate of air at the duct entrance = 54 m3 per hour

(b.) Volume flow rate is given by

Vrate = Area x Velocity
Where Vrate = 0.015 m3/s
A = cross sectional area of the duct
= 0.2 x 0.5 = 0.1 m2
V = mean velocity of the air, m/s

Substituting the values

0.015 = 0.1 x Vel or Vel = 0.15 m/s
Specific Heat Capacity

For real gases, the values of Cv and Cp vary with temperature, and it is usual practice to use
average values in a given temperature range. For solids and liquids, Cv and Cp are almost same.

The relationship between Cv, Cp and R

Cp = Cv + R
Cp – Cv = R
K = Cp / Cv
Cv = R / K-1

Table 1, lists the values of molecular weights and the specific heats for a range of gases regularly
used in common engineering practice.

Table 1: Molecular weight and specific of some gases

Gas Chemical M cp cv
Symbol Kg/kg-mole kJ/kg-K kJ/kg-K
Oxygen O2 32 0.918 0.659
Hydrogen H2 2 14.320 10.200
Nitrogen N2 28 1.040 0.744
Dry air 29 1.005 0.718
Water vapour H2 O 18 1.860 1.398
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44 0.846 0.657
Example 3

Exhaust gas leaves the exhaust pipe of a motor car with a pressure of 1.2 bar and the temperature
of 400oC. If the specific heats of the gas at constant pressure and at constant volume are 0.912
kJ/kg-K and 0.684 kJ/kg-K respectively, determine the density of the exhaust gas.
Data: p = 120 KPa; T = 400 + 273 = 673K
Cp = 0.912 KJ/kg-K Cv = 0.684 KJ/kg-K
ρ =?

Solution:
The ideal gas equation is pV = mRT or p = ρRT

Where: p = 120 KN/m2 ρ = density of the gas, kg/m3

R = the gas constant T = 673K
= Cp – Cv = 0.912 – 0.684
= 0.228 kJ/kg-K
Substituting the values
(120 KN/m2) = x (0.228 KJ/kg-K) x (673ºK)
On simplification, = 0.782 kg/m3.
The density of the exhaust gas = 0.782 kg/m3.