RESEARCH DESIGN, APPROACH & METHODOLOGY

 A number of research approaches & methods do exist

in social sciences;
 but emphasis is normally given on the main ones as are
applicable
 The research approaches & methodology is based upon
the different types of RDs (discussed earlier);
 which gives emphasis on the overall typology;
strategies & techniques that researchers adopt in the
process of trying to integrate & connect the different
dimensions of the research problem in a more coherent
& logical manner,
 thereby ensuring that the research problem is
comprehensively & effectively addressed.
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 Cont ...
 Technically speaking, the research approach &
the methods adopted are more or less similar
with the RDs adopted (reflecting two sides of a coin)
 Thus, without initially focusing on the design

issues;
 the overall formulation of the research problem

& its approach will not be adequate enough;

 meaning that the findings & conclusions drawn

therefrom risks being considered weak &

untenable.
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 Cont ...
 Cross-sectional Approach
 Designed to obtain information on the identified variables in

regard to the RP (e.g poverty) from different dimensions /

angles and/or contexts i.e the socio-economic, cultural, & political
contexts
 Usually carried-out when constraints/challenges exist in terms
of time & resources, esp. in regard to area / geographical
coverage
 thereby necessitating to the area/cluster sampling procedures

 Normally cross-sectional studies takes a snapshot of an on-

going operation, process/activity; not the whole i,e

 the Data are collected over a short span of time; analyzed;

interpreted & reported accordingly

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 Cont ...
 Often used to investigate the socio-economic
characteristics on a large geographic area involving a
large group of people or households or organizations;
 but usually encounters a number of issues/challenges;
esp. in relation to the representativeness & authenticity
of research procedure e.g
 For instance not conforming to representation of the
universe in the sample size, except with the use of PPS
 Moreover it does not explain why a correlation exists
between different variables;
 but simply states their existence or non-existence – its
said to be descriptive in nature

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 Experimental Approach

 Conducted either in laboratories (pure sciences); or

 in natural settings (social sciences) in a systematic manner
 While pure science research exercise considerable control
of variables by eliminating certain other variables; or
keeping others constant;
 social science research doesn’t exercise control since it
occurs under natural settings where man has no control
 Experimental studies enables causal-effect relationships to
be established
 Main aim in EXP research is to manipulate the IV in order
to observe its effect on the DV e.g intensity of room
temperatures & productivity levels

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 Cont ..
 Like a cross-sectional study, experimental studies are
associated with a number of research obstacles e.g
confounding variables which a researcher wants to control
 Confounding variable is one which obscures the effects of
another
 For instance the novelty of giving too much attention /
working in a new environment – smart classroom, new
furniture, etc.
 Furthermore, lab settings do not reflect actual working
environment
 However, they are useful for examining work behaviour at
an individual level

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 Cont ..
 Field experiments have an edge over lab
experiments in that they are conducted in a real-
world situations;
 thus avoiding pitfalls of lab experiments i.e
adoption & application
 However problems exist in establishing &
conducting research in true natural environs in the
strict sense of the term;
 particularly since researchers may not have such a
strong control over confounding & extraneous
variables

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 Cont ..
 An extraneous variable (unforseen) is one other
than the IV which might have an effect on the DV
 Exa: Relationships b2in motivation & working in a
new environ on productivity i.e the difficulty in
excluding their effects on productivity with that of
other variables (factors) like work-culture,
employee discipline, etc

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 xx Longitudinal Approach xx

 Conducted over time on a certain subject

regarding a given variable or group of
variables
 main aim is to find out the dynamics of

change in regard to the RP under study by

investigating / researching the same
phenomenon several times over; or,
 continuously over a period of time in which

the problem persists/runs/stretches; usually

in terms of years e.g climatic conditions

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 Cont ..
 Repeated observations are taken with a view to
reveal the relative stability of the phenomena;
 in which case some variables may have changed
considerably;
 while others may show little signs of change
 Thus longitudinal studies enable researchers to
examine the change processes within the social,
economic & political contexts
 Hence the possibility for researchers to suggest
the likely explanations from the examinations of
the processes & patterns that may emerge

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 Cont ..
 Constant observations of people/events & the
environment over time gives a researcher an
extended opportunity to exercise control over
the variables being studied
 Longitudinal studies can be based primarily

on a qualitative approach i.e one in which

there is a chain of studies;
 where each link in a chain is an examination

or re-examination of a related group or social

process

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 Cont ..
 The earlier observations in the chain are
mainly said to be exploratory in nature;
 but as the chain of studies gets elongated;
 grounded theory is generated upon which

further explanations may be based

 Thus, the chain of qualitative case studies

improves the applicability & validity of the

findings

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 Cont ..
 Additionally researchers gain more insights; deeper
& clearer understanding of the subject-matter as
the research develops/deepens; and,
 takes account / consideration of the social process
instead of relying upon only on individual cases
 Once started, the study must be continued, though
there is the problem of losing some of the
variables/subjects during the course of the study
depending upon the duration the observation takes

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 Cont ..
 This methodology is time-consuming & expensive to undertake
and therefore
 Not appropriate for undergraduate & post-graduate degree
studies which may require primary data collection (primary
sources) involving limited timeframe;
 however it may be possible based on secondary source /
secondary data for trend analysis
 Exa: from different governmental & private agencies which
compile & publish a considerable amount of data on various
socio-economic issues
 Hence depending upon the specific area/discipline;
 researchers can investigate whether there have been significant
changes over a certain period of time; and,
 how these changes might be explained

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 Survey Approach

 An approach whereby samples are drawn from a

given population; and, studied to make inferences
about the entire universe
 Whenever the total population is small;
 it’s normal to collect data from each element in the
population i.e census survey
 Where the population is large;
 it would not be possible to collect data from each
every element in the population; and,
 instead, only a sample of the whole population
would be used

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 Cont ..
 Once sample is confirmed as being sufficient
enough (representative);
 it’s possible to apply statistical tools & techniques to
demonstrate the likelihood that the features of the
sample will also be found in the entire pop elements
 Finally, it’s possible to generalize the findings from
the sample study
 First and foremost step in undertaking surveys is to
select a sample;
 by ensuring that it’s not biased and representative
of the entire population from which it’s drawn

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 Cont ..
 Having decided on the sample size;
 it becomes imperative to know how to proceed
while raising the research questions i.e
 the methodology either thru’ the face-to-face
i.e personal interviews;
 phone interviews; or, through mail survey; or,
phone survey
 Essentially all respondents should be asked
exactly the same questions; same order; in the
same circumstances

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 Types of Survey Approach
 Two types of surveys, viz; Descriptive & Analytical
 Descriptive survey approach
 Concerned with identifying & counting the frequency of
a specific population; (confining itself with)
 either at one point of time, or at different times for
comparison purposes
 Usually surveys are often associated either with:
 Political exercises i.e party elections (opinion polls); or,
 Business activities where its frequently adopted in the
form of opinion surveys e.g for assessing customers’
attitudes towards certain products/services; or,
employees’ views on specific organizational issues, etc.

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 Cont ..
 Analytical survey approach
 Surveys intended to determine whether any
relationships exists between different variables under
consideration
 Researchers intending to carry-out such type of
surveys should be very much familiar;
 with the subject-matter & its theoretical background;
 so as to be able to identify the independent,
dependent & extraneous variables

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 Case Study Approach

 An in-depth and intensive examination of a single instance in regard

to the phenomenon under inquiry
 The unit of analysis is the type or kind of case to which the
phenomena variables under investigation refer; and,
 in regard to which data is collected; presented; analyzed and
interpreted and reported
 Case study approach implies & applies to a single unit of study &
analysis - a company, an association, an event, a process or even an
individual unit
 Involves gathering detailed information regarding the unit of analysis;
 often stretching over a very long period of time;
 with a view of obtaining an in-depth knowledge in regard to the
phenomena
 Moreover there may be a single case of a number of cases in a
research study

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 Cont ..
 Case studies are often described as exploratory;
 and, usually applicable in areas/fields where either
 there are few theories; or,
 deficient body of knowledge
 However there isn’t only one form of case studies i.e
exploratory case study;
 later a number of other forms of case studies exist, viz;
 Descriptive case study
 Where the main objective is restricted to the

description of the prevailing circumstances /

practices regarding the phenomenon

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 Cont ..
 Explanatory case study
 Where existing theories are used to understand &
explain what is currently happening rationally
 Experimental case study
 Where case study examines the difficulties /
challenges involved or encountered;
 while implementing the newly established systems
and procedures in an organizational set-up; and,
 thereby evaluating their benefits

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 Cont ..
 Illustrative case study (closely related experimental)
 wherein the research-work attempts to illustrate /
demonstrate newly & possibly innovative practices
adopted by a particular company/organization
 Note: The different types of case study approaches
are not well delineated; and,
 therefore one type may be combined with; or,
merged into another i.e no hard-and-fast rule
 Methods used to collect data in a case study
method include documentary analysis; interviews;
observation, etc.

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 Characteristics of Case Study Method

 Approach aims @ not only to explore certain

phenomena;
 but also to understand it within a particular context
– social, economic, cultural or political environs
 It does not commence with a set of questions &
notions per-se in regard to the limits within which
the study takes place i.e hypothezing
 It adopts multiple methods for data collection
which may be both qualitative and quantitative

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 Phases of Case Study Approach

 I) Selecting a case
 Not necessary to talk of a representative case; or,
set of cases;
 becoz researchers @ this stage do not aim @
generalizations
 However they may select a critical case which
encompasses issues which are of most
prominence / influential / attracts common interest
to observe
 Moreover there is possibility 2adopt more than one
case i.e in order to reflect generalizations

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 Cont ..
 II) Preliminary investigation
 Popularly referred to as ‘drift’
 involves a process of becoming familiar with the context
in which one is going to conduct the research i.e
conceptualization & familiarization with the case / org.
 III) Data collection stage
 Here researcher needs to determine what, how, where &
when to collect data
 It’s usually advisable to combine data collection
methods such as archive searching; interviews; surveys
& observations
 Evidences (data) may be qualitative, quantitative or both

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 Cont ..
 IV) Analysis stage
 Researchers often have a choice between:
 within-case analysis; or across-cases analysis depending
upon the RD adopted i.e single case; or, single case
involving a number of cases (study units)
 In the within-case analysis; researchers must be very
clear with the material contained in the case – in order to
be able to establish the pattern /sequence of analysis
 For the across-cases analysis; researchers should be
able to identify the similarities & differences between the
cases in order to establish common patterns / grounds
of analysis

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 Cont ..
 V) Reporting stage
 Difficulties often arise in writing up the case study
materials;
 both in determining an appropriate structure; and,
 demonstrating that the analysis & conclusions
reached are in line with the mass of data collected
 However chronological structure is easier to adopt
because it can relate the unfolding events as and
when they occur

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 Concluding Remarks

 Although the case study approach can be a very

attractive and satisfactory methodology to adopt;
 there are certain weaknesses associated with it:
 Access to a suitable case is often difficult to
negotiate; and,
 the process of the research-work is not only;
 time-consuming but also costly / expensive;
 Besides, there is the difficulty of deciding upon the
delimitations of the study i.e where to draw the
boundaries

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 Cont ..
 Although focus is on a particular case – an Org /
Aspect / Event / Operation;
 the case do not exist in isolation; but later interacts
with the rest of the body corporate / society in one
way or the other
 Whatever the unit of analysis;
 everything has a history & a future all of which
influence one’s understanding of the present
 Researchers may find it difficult to understand &
comprehend fully the events in a particular period
without prior knowledge of what happens before &
what may follow thereafter

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BREAK-POINT

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Data Processing & Analysis

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