INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

LECTURE ASSIGNMENT #1: DIODES APPLICATION

RANIEL REY P. CANTOR BSEE3B
 SECTION 2-1
1. Describe forward bias of a diode.
2. Explain how to forward-bias a diode.
3. Describe reverse bias of a diode.
4. Explain how to reverse-bias a diode.
5. Compare the depletion regions in forward bias and reverse bias.
6. Which bias condition produces majority carrier current?
7. How is reverse current in a diode produced?
8. When does reverse breakdown occur in a diode?
9. Define avalanche effect as applied to diodes.
SECTION 2-1
Describe forward bias of a diode.
• Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn junction.
• One requirement for forward bias is that the n-region is connected to the
negative side of the VBIAS and the p-region is connected in the positive side.
• Another requirement is that the VBIAS must be greater than the barrier
potential.
SECTION 2-1
Explain how to forward-bias a diode

The first thing to take note when we are talking about

forward biasing a diode is that we must connect the p-region
to the positive side of the VBIAS(can be a battery) while the
n-region is to the negative side.
SECTION 2-1
Describe reverse bias of a diode
• Reverse Biasing condition involves the connection of a negative voltage
potential to the P-type material and a positive to the N-type material
across the diode, thus increasing the width of the diode.
• Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through
the diode.
SECTION 2-1
Explain how to reverse-bias a diode

In contrast to Forward Biasing, the connection on a reverse bias

will be different, we will now connect the p-region to the
negative side of the VBIAS and the n-region to the positive side.
SECTION 2-1
Compare the depletion regions in forward bias and reverse bias

The depletion region in reverse bias is much wider/thicker than

the depletion region of forward bias.
SECTION 2-1
Which bias condition produces majority carrier current?

Forward Bias produces majority carrier current because of

its thin depletion region. While on the Reverse Bias,
because of its wider depletion region there will also be a
depletion in the majority carrier.
SECTION 2-1
How is reverse current in a diode produced?

The small current flows through the diode when the diode is in reverse
biased state is called the reverse current of the diode. The current through
the diode in reverse bias increases as the reverse bias voltage is increased.
The reverse current remains within the specified rated current limit and if
the voltage is increased above the reverse breakdown voltage the reverse
current increases abruptly and diode is apt to fail in this condition. It is
produced after the transition current dies out is caused by the minority
carriers in the n and p regions that are produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs.
SECTION 2-1
When does reverse breakdown occur in a diode?

• If reverse bias is made too high, the current through

PN junction increases abruptly and the voltage at
which this phenomenon occurs is called breakdown
voltage.
• Reverse breakdown is when external reverse-bias
voltage is increased to a value.
SECTION 2-1
Define avalanche effect as applied to diodes

• The avalanche breakdown is due to minority carriers accelerated

enough to create ionization in the crystal lattice, producing
more carriers, which in turn create more ionization.
• If one electron knocks only two others out of their valence orbit
during its travel through the p region, the numbers quickly
multiply. The multiplication of conduction electrons just
discussed is known as the avalanche effect.
 SECTION 2-2
1. Discuss the significance of the knee of the characteristic curve in
forward bias.
2. On what part of the curve is a forward-biased diode normally
operated?
3. Which is greater, the breakdown voltage or the barrier potential?
4. On what part of the curve is a reverse-biased diode normally
operated?
5. What happens to the barrier potential when the temperature
increases?
SECTION 2-2
Discuss the significance of the knee of the characteristic curve in
forward bias
• The knee of the characteristic curve in
forward bias is the point at which the
barrier potential is overcome and the
current increases drastically.
• The forward current increases very
little until the voltage reaches 0.7V
and thn it increases rapidly. The
forward voltage remains nearly
constant at 0.7V
SECTION 2-2
On what part of the curve is a forward-biased diode normally
operated?

• A forward-biased diode is normally

operated above the knee of the
curve.
SECTION 2-2
Which is greater, the breakdown voltage or the barrier potential?

• Breakdown voltage is always much

greater than the barrier potential.
SECTION 2-2
On what part of the curve is a reverse-biased diode normally
operated?

• A reverse-biased diode is normally

operated between 0 V and the
breakdown voltage.
SECTION 2-2
What happens to the barrier potential when the temperature
increases?

• The barrier potential decreases by 2 mV

for each degree increase in
temperature. It decreases because as
the temperature increases, electrons get
excited and starts moving across the
barrier. 
 SECTION 2-3
1. What are the two conditions under which a diode is operated?
2. Under what condition is a diode never intentionally operated?
3. What is the simplest way to visualize a diode?
4. To more accurately represent a diode, what factors must be
included?
5. Which diode model represents the most accurate
approximation?
SECTION 2-3
What are the two conditions under which a diode is
operated?
• The two conditions are Forward Bias
and Reverse Bias.
SECTION 2-3
Under what condition is a diode never intentionally operated?

• In the reverse-bias condition, the negative terminal of

the source is connected to the anode side of the
circuit and the positive terminal is connected to the
cathode side.
• In reverse breakdown region because it can result in
overheating and damage if the current isn't limited to
a safe value
SECTION 2-3
What is the simplest way to visualize a diode?

• The ideal model of a diode is the least accurate

approximation and can be represented by a simple
switch.
• When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like
a closed (on) switch, When the diode is reverse-
biased, it ideally acts like an open (off) switch.
SECTION 2-3
To more accurately represent a diode, what factors must be
included?

• The factors that must be included are barrier

potential, small forward dynamic resistance and large
internal reverse resistance.
SECTION 2-3
Which diode model represents the most accurate
approximation?

• The complete model of a diode is the most accurate

approximation and includes the barrier potential, the
small forward dynamic resistance and the large
internal reverse resistance.
 SECTION 2-4
1. At what point on the input cycle does the PIV occur?
2. For a half-wave rectifier, there is current through the load for
approximately what percentage of the input cycle?
3. What is the average of a half-wave rectified voltage with a peak value of
10 V?
4. What is the peak value of the output voltage of a half-wave rectifier
with a peak sinewave input of 25 V?
5. What PIV rating must a diode have to be used in a rectifier with a peak
output voltage of 50 V?
SECTION 2-4
At what point on the input cycle does the PIV occur?

• The maximum value of reverse voltage, designated as

PIV, occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of
the input voltage when the diode is reverse-biased. A
diode should be rated at least 20% higher than the
PIV.
SECTION 2-4
For a half-wave rectifier, there is current through the load
for approximately what percentage of the input cycle?

• There is current through the rectifier for

approximately 50% of the input cycle if driving only
resistance.
SECTION 2-4
What is the average of a half-wave rectified voltage with a
peak value of 10 V?

V
SECTION 2-4
What is the peak value of the output voltage of a half-wave
rectifier with a peak sinewave input of 25 V?

25V - 0.7V = 24.3V

SECTION 2-4
What PIV rating must a diode have to be used in a rectifier
with a peak output voltage of 50 V?

The PIV must be at least 50 V or

50V + 50V(20%) = 60V
 SECTION 2-5
1. How does a full-wave voltage differ from a half-wave voltage?
2. What is the average value of a full-wave rectified voltage with a peak
value of 60 V?
3. Which type of full-wave rectifier has the greater output voltage for the
same input voltage and transformer turns ratio?
4. For a peak output voltage of 45 V, in which type of rectifier would you
use diodes with a PIV rating of 50 V?
5. What PIV rating is required for diodes used in the type of rectifier that
was not selected in Question 4?
SECTION 2-5
How does a full-wave voltage differ from a half-wave
voltage?

• A full-wave voltage is a result of full wave rectification and

occurs on each half of the input cycle and has a frequency of
twice the input frequency, twice the voltage. A half-wave
voltage occurs once each input cycle and has a frequency
equal to the input frequency. Both cycles positive or negative
appear in the positive or negative circle of the output.
SECTION 2-5
What is the average value of a full-wave rectified voltage
with a peak value of 60 V?

V
SECTION 2-5
Which type of full-wave rectifier has the greater output
voltage for the same input voltage and transformer turns
ratio?
The full wave bridge rectifier () has a greater output voltage for
the same input voltage and transformer turns ratio than the
center tapped full wave rectifier ().
SECTION 2-5
For a peak output voltage of 45 V, in which type of rectifier
would you use diodes with a PIV rating of 50 V?

The diodes with a 50 V PIV rating must be used in the

bridge rectifier, because according to the equation the
rating must be at least 45.7 V.
SECTION 2-5
What PIV rating is required for diodes used in the type of
rectifier that was not selected in Question 4?

The other type is center tapped rectifier, and according

to the equation the PIV rating must be at least 89.3 V or
90 V to be more exact.
 SECTION 2-6
1. When a 60 Hz sinusoidal voltage is applied to the input of a half-wave
rectifier, what is the output frequency?
2. When a 60 Hz sinusoidal voltage is applied to the input of a full-wave
rectifier, what is the output frequency?
3. What causes the ripple voltage on the output of a capacitor-input
filter?
4. If the load resistance connected to a filtered power supply is
decreased, what happens to the ripple voltage?
5. Define ripple factor.
6. What is the difference between input (line) regulation and load
regulation?
SECTION 2-6
When a 60 Hz sinusoidal voltage is applied to the input of
a half-wave rectifier, what is the output frequency?

The output frequency will remain the same (60 Hz)

because it’s a half wave rectifier.
SECTION 2-6
When a 60 Hz sinusoidal voltage is applied to the input of
a full-wave rectifier, what is the output frequency?

The output frequency will now be doubled (120 Hz)

because it’s now a full wave rectifier.
SECTION 2-6
What causes the ripple voltage on the output of a
capacitor-input filter?

The quick charging and slow discharging of the

capacitor.
SECTION 2-6
If the load resistance connected to a filtered power supply
is decreased, what happens to the ripple voltage?

The ripple voltage will increase, it is because this two

are inversely proportional to each other together with
the capacitors.
SECTION 2-6
Define ripple factor.
SECTION 2-7
1. Discuss how diode limiters and diode clampers differ in terms of
their function.
2. What is the difference between a positive limiter and a negative
limiter?
3. What is the maximum voltage across an unbiased positive silicon
diode limiter during the positive alternation of the input voltage?
4. To limit the output voltage of a positive limiter to 5 V when a 10 V
peak input is applied, what value must the bias voltage be?
5. What component in a clamping circuit effectively acts as a
battery?
SECTION 2-7
Discuss how diode limiters and diode clampers differ in
terms of their function.
The major difference between clipper and clamper is
that clipper is a limiting circuit which limits the output voltage
while clamper is a circuit which shifts the DC level of output
voltage. The clipper and clamper circuits are exactly opposite to
each other regarding their working principle.
SECTION 2-7
What is the difference between a positive limiter and a
negative limiter?
The positive limiter can be modified to limit the output
voltage to the portion of the input voltage waveform above
VBIAS - 0.7 V as shown by the output waveform in Figure 2–
57(a). Similarly, the negative limiter can be modified to limit
the output voltage to the portion of the input voltage waveform
below -VBIAS + 0.7 V, as shown by the output waveform in part
(b).
SECTION 2-7
What is the difference between a positive limiter and a
negative limiter?
SECTION 2-7
What is the maximum voltage across an unbiased positive
silicon diode limiter during the positive alternation of the
input voltage?

0.7 V
SECTION 2-7
To limit the output voltage of a positive limiter to 5 V when
a 10 V peak input is applied, what value must the bias
voltage be?
Vbias + 0.7 V = 5 V

Vbias = 4.3 V
SECTION 2-7
What component in a clamping circuit effectively acts as a
battery?
For a good clamping action the RC time constant should be at
least 10 times of the period of the input frequency.
The capacitor voltage acts as a battery in series with the input
voltage, the dc voltage of the capacitor adds to the input
voltage. The shape of the input signal of a clamper is not
changed.
SECTION 2-8
1. What must be the peak voltage rating of the
transformer secondary for a voltage doubler that
produces an output of 200 V?
2. The output voltage of a quadrupler is 620 V. What
minimum PIV rating must each diode have?
SECTION 2-8
What must be the peak voltage rating of the transformer
secondary for a voltage doubler that produces an output of
200 V?

Vout = 2Vp ;
200 V = 2Vp ;

Vp = 100 V
SECTION 2-8
The output voltage of a quadrupler is 620 V. What
minimum PIV rating must each diode have?

Vout = 2PIV ;
620 = 2PIV ;

PIV = 310 V