BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS

 stress

 strain

 elasticity - plasticity - brittleness

 safety factors

 selecting appropriate materials

 STRESS

 internal forces developed within a structure

due to action of external forces

 stress is force intensity - force per unit area

 similar to (internal) pressure

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 STRAIN
 response to stress

 have stress --> get strain

 strain to do with change in size or shape

ratio of
change in size or shape of element
to original size or shape

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 STRAIN (cont.1)

 for member subject to simple tensile force

strain =
increase in length L
original length e=
L

 dimensionless - millimetres / millimetre

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 STRAIN (cont2.)
 determined by:
 taking member of known length and X-section
 subjecting it to a known load
 measuring elongation

 except for rubber bands, strains very small

 usually not visible

 more a material strains under load -

more the structure deflects
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STESS & STRAIN SUMMARY

force
causes

stress
puts material under

strain
results in

deformation

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BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS

 how materials respond to stress

(i.e. how they strain)
determined by whether they are:

elastic or plastic

 properties of materials only explicable in

terms of internal forces in the material at
the molecular or atomic level
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 ELASTICITY

 until you damage the molecular structure

the material remains elastic

it recovers when the load is removed

the spring in a weighing scale

deforms in proportion to the load, and
returns to zero when you step off

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 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

 within elastic range

stress
stress is proportional to strain


 linear relationship (Hooke’s Law)
strain

 the modulus of elasticity, E,

is a property of a material

stress
 E is stress divided by strain E=
slope of line () strain

 same units as stress (MPa)

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MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (cont.)

 the modulus of elasticity, E, is a property of a material

modulus of elasticity, E
steel 200,000 MPa
aluminium 70,000 MPa
concrete 25,000 MPa (varies)
timber 10,000 MPa (varies a lot)

steel bar 1m long under stress of 150 MPa

extends 0.75mm

too small to see by eye - measured by

micrometer 10/23
 DUCTILITY - PLASTICITY
 as long as atomic bonds unbroken material remains
elastic & recovers original size and shape

 when break atomic bonds material fails in

one of two ways - plastic (ductile) or brittle

 in ductile material, material deforms permanently

 material can be greatly bent and reshaped (plasticene)

 no loss in strength

 eventually fracture occurs but after lot of energy

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 DUCTILITY - PLASTICITY (cont1.)

stress yield point

ultimate
failure

yield stress

elastic plastic strain

range range

 ultimate deformation of plastic material much greater

than elastic deformation - visible to naked eye
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 DUCTILITY - PLASTICITY (cont2.)

 ductility - able to deform permanently prior to fracture

 most materials ductile at low stresses

 most metals ductile (not cast iron)

 need also strength

wrought iron highly ductile but not very strong

high-carbon steel very strong but less ductile

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ELASTO - PLASTIC MATERIALS

 ductile materials can be used safely

below the yield stress

 overstress --> deform dramatically

but don’t immediately break

 good warning

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 BRITTLENESS

 sudden breaking of atomic bonds SNAP !

 material fails suddenly - like glass

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 BRITTLENESS (cont.)
yield point

stress
 brittle failure occurs with failure
little energy absorption

 stone, brick, concrete, glass

 high compressive strength -

poor tensile strength
strain
 most traditional structures designed to
eliminate tensile stresses - domes , vaults
timber not durable - 19thC iron then steel

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 CURE FOR BRITTLENESS

 reinforced concrete invented in 2nd half of 19thC

 steel bars placed in parts of

concrete that are in tension

 concrete cracks but

steel resists the tension

 cracks very fine - important that

water does not reach steel
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CURE FOR BRITTLENESS (cont.)

add elasto-plastic material

that can resist tension
into brittle material

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SELECTING THE RIGHT MATERIAL
 timber - not fireproof
strength per volume just less than R.C - much less than steel
strength per weight not much less than steel - long span glulam

 stone rarely used today as structural material

 brick and block - loadbearing walls
for multistorey buildings of medium height

 steel - needs fireproofing, rustproofing

 reinforced concrete (R.C.) - slow construction
 prestressed concrete (P.C.) - expensive
 aluminium - lightweight, expensive
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 SAFETY FACTORS
 must ensure that structures do not collapse

must have a margin of safety

 factor of safety allows for

 imperfections in materials
 loads not considered
 slightly undersized members
 simplifications in assumptions made in analysis

 two philosophies ultimate strength method

elastic method
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 SAFETY FACTORS
Ultimate Strength Method


load that structure carries x a factor of safety

 factored load called the Ultimate Load

 factor of safety must be greater than 1.0

 1.0 would mean that structure collapses
as soon as service load put on

 factors of safety for buildings vary from 1.5 to 2.5

 depends on structure and material

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 SAFETY FACTORS
Elastic Method

 ensure that maximum stress in structure

less than Maximum Permissible Stress

Ultimate Stress
 Max Permissible Stress =
Factor of Safety

 Maximum Permissible Stress nearly always falls

within elastic range of material

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 SERVICEABILITY

 factor of safety ensures that structure does not

collapse under most situations

 but also need to avoid excessive deflection

 leads to cracking - elements and finishes

 excessive deflection - instantaneous / creep

 creep - slowly over time - timber, concrete

 creep deflection may be 2-3 times as much as

instantaneous deflection
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