Foundation - HU - Lec - 4 Settlement of Shallow Foundations

Foundation Engineering I
Hawassa University Institute of Technology

Department of Civil Engineering
Bereket Bezabih
beackon@gmail.com
2018/19
Chapter Three
Bearing Capacity & Settlement of Shallow Foundations
Lecture on
Settlement of Shallow Foundations
HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 2

Contents
• Settlement of Shallow Foundations
• Introductions
• Stiffness of Foundations
• Stress Distribution in Soils
• Elastic Settlement Computations
• Consolidation Settlement Computations
• Settlement Computation Based on In situ Method*
• Differential Settlement
• Allowable Total and Differential Settlements
• References

Settlement of Foundation
• Introduction
• Historically people used to design
foundation with the sole
consideration for safety again bearing
capacity failure
• Often the foundation dimensions are
controlled by settlement
requirements i.e. allowable
settlements rather than bearing
capacity
• For smaller foundation widths, the
bearing capacity controls and, for
larger foundation widths, the
allowable settlement controls

• Components of Settlement
• The settlement of a foundation can have three components:
• Elastic settlement, Se (Immediate Settlement)
• Primary consolidation settlement, Sc
• Secondary consolidation settlement, Ss
• For any given foundation, one or more of the components may be

zero or negligible.
• Immediate settlement analysis is used for fine grained soils when the degree
of saturations S < 0.9
• And for all course grained materials with large coefficient of permeability k >
10-3m/sec
• Consolidation settlement analysis for all saturated clay

• Problems of Settlement Analysis
• Any type of settlement is a function of the additional
stress,,imposed on the soil by the foundation and the soil
behavior
• The general formulation for settlement analysis can be given
by;
where
Es modulus of elasticity,strain, z depth affected by the foundation

If the depth of soil has n layers of thickness zi
• Settlement calculations are complicated by
• Lack of reliable elastic soil parameters
• Lack of reliable stress profile from applied loads
• Unknown (not fully understood) soil–Structure interaction
Stiffness of Foundations
• Soil-Structure Interaction
• Settlement of foundation is influenced by the stress distribution,
which in turn is soil-structure interaction
• Borowicka (1936) developed solutions for the distribution of
contact pressure beneath a continuous foundation supported by
a perfectly elastic material
• According to this theory the contact pressure distribution p is a
function of relative stiffness factor k, where
& Poison’s ratio of soil & foundation respectively

& Young’s Modulus of soil & foundation respectively
thickness of foundation

• Often in practice, the stress q applied by a structure to a
soil is often assumed to be uniform
• The actual pressure then applied by the foundation to
the soil is a reaction, called the contact pressure p and
its distribution beneath the foundation may be far from
uniform
• This distribution of contact pressure p depends mainly
on:
• Stiffness of the foundation, i.e. Elastic, flexible, rigid
• Compressibility or stiffness of the soil
• Loading conditions - uniform or point loading.

• Stiffness of Foundations
• A elastic (yielding) foundation has no resistance to deflection and will
deform or bend into a dish-shaped profile when stresses are applied
• Fresh unset concrete
• An earth embankment would comprise a yielding structure and
foundation.
• A flexible foundation provides some resistance to bending and will
deform into a flatter dish-shape so that differential settlements are
smaller
• This forms the basis of design for a raft foundation placed beneath the
whole of a structure.
• A rigid foundation has infinite stiffness and will not deform or bend, so
it moves downwards uniformly
• This would apply to a thick, relatively small reinforced concrete pad
foundation

• Stiffness of Soils
• The stiffness of a clay will be the same
under all parts of the foundation so for a
flexible foundation a fairly uniform contact
pressure distribution is obtained with a
dish-shaped (sagging) settlement profile
• For a rigid foundation, the dish-shaped
settlement profile must be flattened out,
so beneath the center of the foundation
the contact pressure is reduced, and
beneath the edges of the foundation it is
increased
• Theoretically, the contact pressure
increases to a very high value at the
edges, although yielding of the soil would
occur in practice, leading to some
redistribution of stress
• Stiffness of Soils Flexible foundation on sand
• The stiffness of a sand increases as the
confining pressures around it increase, so
beneath the center of the foundation the
stiffness will be at its greatest, whereas
near the edge of the foundation the
stiffness of the sand will be smaller
• A flexible foundation will, therefore,
produce greater strains at the edges than Rigid foundation on sand
in the center, so the settlement profile will
be dish-shaped but upside-down (hogging)
with a fairly uniform contact pressure
• For a rigid foundation this settlement
profile must be flattened out, so the
contact pressure beneath the center would
be increased and beneath the edges it
would be decreased HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 11
Stress Distribution in Soils:
Review
• Stress Distribution in Soils: A Review
• Assuming soil mass is an homogenous ,isotropic, elastic semi
infinite half space, Boussinesq (1885) solved the problem of
stress distribution for surcharge loads
• Hence the vertical stress created at point A due to the point
load P is given by;
3𝑃
∆ 𝜎= If we let
[ ( )]
2 5/ 2
𝑟
2 𝜋 𝑧 2 1+
𝑧
𝑃
then ∆ 𝜎= 2
𝐼
𝑧
I is a geometric factor
𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
known as Influence factor

Review
• Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
• If the circular area has a radius
R and supports load per unit
area q, the stress increase at
point A below the center of the
circular area is given by
if we let σz/q
Then I r/R 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
• For any point other than the z/R
center, the influence factors 0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.500
0.2 0.992 0.991 0.987 0.970 0.890 0.468
have computed by Ahlvin and 0.4 0.979 0.943 0.920 0.860 0.713 0.435
Ulery (1962) as shown in table 0.6
0.8
0.864
0.756
0.852
0.742
0.814
0.699
0.732
0.619
0.591
0.504
0.400
0.366
below 1.0
1.5
0.646
0.424
0.633
0.416
0.591
0.392
0.525
0.355
0.434
0.308
0.332
0.288
2.0 0.284 0.281 0.268 0.248 0.224 0.196
2.5 0.200 0.197 0.196 0.188 0.167 0.151
3.0 0.146 0.145 0.141 0.135 0.127 0.118
4.0 0.087 0.086 0.085 0.082 0.080 0.075
5.0 0.057 0.057 0.056 0.054 0.053 0.052
Review
• Example #2: A silo is supported on a ring foundation The
total vertical load is 4MN (a) plot the vertical increase with
depth up to 8m under the center of the ring (b) determine
the maximum vertical stress increase and its location
𝑟 1=5 𝑚∧𝑟 2=3 𝑚 h𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴= 𝜋 ( 𝑟 21 − 𝑟 12)
hence the surcharge stress q

𝑄 4000 𝑘𝑁
𝑞= = =79.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐴 16 𝜋
[ ]
3
z
𝐼 𝑐= 1 − 3 /2
( R2 + z 2 )
Review
• Solution to Example#2 Cont….
• Computing the influence factors for both the large and small
radius, and using principle of superposition
IC IC 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
Depth ICe-ICi Δσc=q(ICe-Ici)
0
(m) Internal External 1
Circle Circle
2
1 0.9684 0.9925 0.0241 1.92
3
Depth(m)
2 0.8293 0.9488 0.1195 9.51
4
3 0.6464 0.8638 0.2174 17.30 5
4 0.4880 0.7562 0.2682 21.35 6
5 0.3695 0.6464 0.2770 22.05 7
6 0.2845 0.5466 0.2622 20.87 8
7 0.2235 0.4612 0.2377 18.92 9
8 0.1791 0.3902 0.2111 16.80 Stress (kPa)

Review
• Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Flexible Area
• For a uniformly loaded rectangular area, the stress increase at a
point A below a corner is given by
∆ 𝜎 𝑧 =𝑞 𝐼 𝑧 𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐵 𝐿
𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛=
𝑧 𝑧
For all practical purposes one can use the approximate,2:1

method
𝑄
∆ 𝜎𝑧=
( 𝐵+ 𝑧 )( 𝐿+ 𝑧 )
∆ 𝜎𝑧
Elastic Settlement Computations
• Settlement Under a Circular Area
• Using Hooke’s law, the elastic settlements of a
uniformly loaded flexible circular area (q / unit area)
on the surface of an elastic material (in this case soil
which is assumed to be elastic)
• The radius of the circular area is R. The vertical strain
z at a point A due to the loading can be given as
1
𝜀 𝑧= [ 𝜎 − 𝜐 ( 𝜎 𝑟 +𝜎 𝜃 ) ]
𝐸𝑠 𝑧
𝑍 𝑍
1
Δ 𝑧=∫ 𝜀𝑧 𝑑𝑧=∫ [ 𝜎 𝑧 −𝜐 ( 𝜎 𝑟 +𝜎 𝜃 ) ] 𝑑𝑧
0 0 𝐸𝑠
𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼 1∧ 𝐼 2= 𝑓 ( 𝑧
𝑅
𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑟
𝑅 )
• The variations of I1 and I2 at r/R = 0 & 1 (that is,
below the center and
edge of the loaded area) are given in Table below
For r/R=0 i.e. Center For r/R=1 i.e. Edge

z/R I1 I2 z/R I1 I2
0 1.000 2.000 0 1.000 2.000

0.2 0.804 1.640 0.2 0.804 1.640
0.4 0.629 1.350 0.4 0.629 1.350
0.6 0.486 1.130 0.6 0.486 1.130
0.8 0.375 0.961 0.8 0.375 0.961
1.0 0.293 0.828 1.0 0.293 0.828
1.5 0.168 0.606 1.5 0.168 0.606
2.0 0.106 0.472 2.0 0.106 0.472
2.5 0.072 0.385 2.5 0.072 0.385
3.0 0.051 0.325 3.0 0.051 0.325
4.0 0.030 0.246 4.0 0.030 0.246
5.0 0.019 0.198 5.0 0.019 0.198

• For practical purposes the average
settlement at the surface Se(average)
may be used
0.85 𝑞𝐵(1 −𝜈 2)
𝑆 𝑒 (𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ) =
𝐸𝑠
• The settlement for rigid foundations

is
Se(rigid)= 0.93 Se(average) i.e.
0.79 𝑞𝐵(1 −𝜈 2)
𝑆 𝑒(𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑)=
𝐸𝑠

• Settlement Under A rectangular Area
• The elastic settlement at any depth below the corner of a
flexible rectangular area of dimension L × B can be obtained by
proper integration of the expression for vertical strain as;
𝑆 𝑒(𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 ) =
𝑞𝐵
2 𝐸𝑠
2
[ (
(1 −𝜈 ) 𝐼 3 −
1 −𝜈)
1 −2 𝜈
𝐼4
]

• Settlement Under A rectangular Area
• At the surface n’ = z/B = 0, so I4 = 0,hence
𝑞𝐵
𝑆 𝑒(𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 ) = (1 −𝜈2 ) 𝐼 5
2 𝐸𝑠
• Using the principle of superposition it can be shown that the

settlement at the center𝑞𝐵
Se(Center), 2
𝑆 𝑒(𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 )= (1−𝜈 ) 𝐼 5
𝐸𝑠

• Settlement Under Circular Foundation
• Example#3
• A flexible circularly loaded area located on the ground surface has a
radius of 1.5 m. The uniformly distributed load on the area is 250
kN/m2. Determine the settlement at the ground surface for the
following conditions:
a.Below the center b. At the edge c. Average d. If the loaded area was rigid
Assume Poisson’s ratio to be 0.3 and Es = 9500 kN/m2
Ans. a. 71.8mm b.45.66mm c.61.03 d.56.8mm

• Settlements of Foundations on Saturated Clay
• Janbu’s Method
• Janbu et al proposed a generalized equation for estimating the
average elastic settlement of a uniformly loaded flexible
foundation located on a saturated clay (ν= 0.5)
• This relationship incorporates (a) the effect of embedment Df
and (b) the possible existence of a rigid layer at a shallow depth
under the foundation
𝜇2
Df /B µ1 L/B
𝑞𝐵 h/B Circle
𝑆 𝑒=𝜇 1 𝜇 2
𝐸𝑠 1 2 5 10 ∞
0 1.0
2 0.9
4 0.88 1 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36
6 0.875 2 0.47 0.53 0.63 0.64 0.64 0.64
8 0.87 4 0.58 0.63 0.82 0.94 0.94 0.94
10 0.865 6 0.61 0.67 0.88 1.08 1.14 1.16
12 0.863 8 0.62 0.68 0.90 1.13 1.22 1.26
14 0.860 10 0.63 0.70 0.92 1.18 1.30 1.42
16 0.856 20 0.64 0.71 0.93 1.26 1.47 1.74
18 0.854 30 0.66 0.73 0.95 1.29 1.54 1.84
20 0.850
• Settlement of Foundations on Sand
• Strain Influence Factor Method 𝜎′ 𝑧𝐷
• The settlement of granular soils can also be
evaluated by the use of a semi-empirical
strain influence factor proposed by
Schmertmann et al. (1978)
• According to this method the settlement is
𝑧
2
𝐼𝑧
𝑆 𝑒=𝐶 1 𝐶 2 𝐶 3 ( 𝑞− 𝜎 ′ 𝑧𝐷 ) ∑ ∆ 𝑧
0 𝐸𝑠
𝐼 𝑧 =𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑞=𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡h𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜎 ′ 𝑧𝐷 =𝛾 𝐷 𝑓
𝐶 1=1 − 0.5 (
𝜎 ′ 𝑧𝐷
𝑞 −𝜎 ′ 𝑧𝐷 )
, 𝐶 2=1+0.2 log ⁡(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝐶 =1.03 −0.03 ( 𝐿 )≥ 0.73
0.1
) 3 𝐵
𝐸 𝑠=𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
• Strain Influence Factor Method
cont…
• The recommended variation of
the strain influence factor Iz for
square (L /B =1) or circular
foundations and for foundations
with L /B ≥10 is shown in Figure
• The Iz diagrams for 1<L/B<10 can
be interpolated
𝐼 𝑧(𝑚)=0.5+0.1
√
𝑞 −𝜎 ′ 𝑧𝐷
𝑞 ′ 𝑧(1)
Square or
Circular
Continuous
𝑞 ′ 𝑧(1)=𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡h 𝑧 1 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• Strain Influence Factor Method Modulus of Elasticity value
cont… correlation with cone penetration
• The following relations are suggested resistance qc was suggested for
by Salgado (2008) for interpolation of Iz square/circle and continues footings
as
at z=0, z1/B, and z2/B for rectangular
foundations 𝐸 𝑠=2.5𝑞 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 /𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
• At z=0
𝐿
𝐸 𝑠=3.5𝑞 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 >10
𝐵
• Variation of z1/B
For rectangular footings,
• Variation of z2/B
𝐸 𝑠=(1+0.4 log ( )
𝐿
𝐵
) 𝐸𝑠 (𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 )

• Strain Influence Factor Method cont…
• Procedure for computing elastic
Settlement
• Plot the foundation and the variation of Iz
with depth to scale
• Using Correlations determine the values
of Es for each layer of soil
• Approximate the actual variation of Es into
a number of layers of soil having constant
values of Es
• Divide the soil between z=0 and z=z2 into
convenient layers, the number layers
should account breaks in continuity of Iz
and Es
• Prepare a table to obtain
• Calculate
• Calculate
• Strain Influence Factor Method
• Example #4
• Consider a rectangular foundation 2mx4m in plan at a depth of
1.2m in a sand deposit, as shown in figure. Given: 17.5 kN/m 3;
=145 kN/m2, and the following approximated variation of qc with
z: Estimate the elastic settlement of the foundation using the
strain influence factor method
Z(m) qc(kN/m2)
0-0.5 2250
0.5-2.5 3430
2.5-5.0 2950

• Elasticity Parameters
• Modulus of Elasticity
• The modulus of elasticity of soils can be determined from filed or laboratory tests
• For sands it is preferable to use field test correlations such as SPT or CPT
• If there are a number of layers with varied Es values, either one can take the
weighted average of Es values or compute the elastic settlement for each and add
to get the total settlement
• Please refer to Bowels (1996) page312-322 for more on determination Es and
summary of correlations
• Poison’s Ratio
Soil type Poisson’s ratio, ν
Coarse sand 0.15 – 0.20
Medium loose sand 0.20 – 0.25
Fine sand 0.25 – 0.30
Sandy silt and silt 0.30 – 0.35
Saturated clay (undrained) 0.50
Saturated clay--lightly over-consolidated (drained) 0.2 – 0.4

Consolidation Settlement
• Consolidation
• Consolidation is a time-dependent process which occurs due
to the expulsion of excess pore water pressure in saturated
clayey soils below the ground water table and is created by
the increase in stress created by the foundation load
• Although consolidation occurs in all direction, the analysis in
vertical direction i.e. 1D consolidation suffices for most
practical purposes
• Assumptions for One dimensional consolidation
• Homogenous saturated soil
• Soil particles and water are incompressible
• Vertical flow of water
• Darcy’s Law applies
• Small strains
• 1D consolidation
• Consider a soil sample thickness Ho
constrained from deformation in the
horizontal in an iron ring
• Instantaneous load P with the valve
closed
• Since no water can drain from the
sample the ΔV=0
• All load supported by the water i.e. 1D Consolidation Scheme
load transferred to soil Δσ’=0
• Initial pore water pressure Δuo=Δσz=P/A Volumetric strain
,where A is area of sample
Δ𝑧
𝜀𝑣 = 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝜃 + 𝜀𝑟 =
𝐻𝑜

• Primary Consolidation: Consolidation
Under Constant load
• When the valve is opened and water is allowed
to drain, excess water drains out of the soil
resulting in reduction of sample volume ΔV and
settlement ΔZ
• This reduction in height is known as primary
consolidation settlement
• Secondary Consolidation
• Theoretically primary consolidation ends when
Δuo= 0, the later time settlement repines is know
as secondary Consolidation or Creep
• Caused by the readjustment of the soil particles
• The distinction is theoretical as the creep takes
place as part of primary consolidation

• Void ratio and Settlement
Under Constant Load
• The volumetric strain is given by
• Hence the settlement shall

be
• And the void ratio at any

time under load P is
• Applying a series of loads and

plotting e vs or

• On the bases of one dimensional consolidation primary
consolidation settlement is given by
• For normally consolidated clay, OCR=1
Hence,
where

• Consolidation Settlement
• For over consolidated clay i.e. OCR>1
• Case 1 , pre-consolidation stress
• Case 2 pre-consolidation stress

• Consolidation Settlement Example
• Example #5
• The soil profile at a site for a proposed office building consists of a
layer of fine sand 10.4 m thick above a layer of soft normally
consolidated clay 2 m thick. Below the soft clay is a deposit of soft
sand. The groundwater table was observed at 3 m below ground
level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76 and the water content of the
clay is 43%. The building will impose a vertical stress increase of 140
kPa at the middle of the clay layer. Take Cc=0.3
• Estimate the primary consolidation settlement of the clay. Assume the
soil above the water table to be saturated
Ans. 85mm

Differential Settlement
• If the different parts of the structure settle in
different magnitude, the structure will suffer from
structural, architectural and public confidence more
than if all corners of the building settle in equal
magnitude.
• It is important to define some parameters that
quantify differential settlement to set a minimum
permissible values of those parameters in order to
make the structure safe.

Differential Settlement
• Definition of Differential Settlement Parameters
• Total Settlement
• Difference in total settlement
between any two points
• gradient between any two
successive points
• angular distortion
• tilt
• relative deflection
• deflection ratio
Allowable Settlements
• In 1956, Skempton and McDonald proposed the following
limiting values for maximum settlement and maximum
angular distortion, to be used for building purposes
Maximum Settlement ST(Max)
In Sand 32mm
In Clay 45mm
Maximum Differential Settlement ΔST(Max)
Isolated Foundation In sand 51mm
Isolated Foundation in clay 76mm
Raft in Sand 51-76mm
Raft in Clay 76-127
Maximum angular Distortion βmax 1/300

Allowable Settlements
• Polshin and Tokar (1957) suggested the following
allowable deflection ratios for buildings as a function
of the ratio of the length to the height of
a building:
• The EBCS recommends a permissible total settlment

50mm for sand and 75mm for clay
• And angular distortion ( differential settlement) not
more than 1/500.

References
Bowels, J., E.,(1996) Foundation Analysis and Design,5th
Ed.,McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
Budhu, M, (2011), Soil Mechanics and Foundations,3rd ed,
Braja, M.,Das(2011), Principle of Foundation Engineering 7th Edition,
Braja, M.,Das (1999) Shallow Foundatios,Bearing Capacity and
Settlements, CRC Press LLC
Barnes,G.,E.(1995),Soil Mechanics Principles and Practice,Macmillan
Press Limited,
Codato, P.D,(2001), Foundation Design, principle and practice 2nd Ed,
Prentice Hall, Hobekan NJ
EBCS 7 1995 Ethiopian Building Code of Standards, Foundations
Ministry of Works and Urban Development

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Foundation Engineering I

Hawassa University Institute of Technology

HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 2

HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 3

HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 4

• For any given foundation, one or more of the components may be

HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 5

Es modulus of elasticity,strain, z depth affected by the foundation

& Poison’s ratio of soil & foundation respectively

HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 7

HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 8

HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 9

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hence the surcharge stress q

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For all practical purposes one can use the approximate,2:1

For r/R=0 i.e. Center For r/R=1 i.e. Edge

0 1.000 2.000 0 1.000 2.000

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• The settlement for rigid foundations

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• Using the principle of superposition it can be shown that the

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Ans. a. 71.8mm b.45.66mm c.61.03 d.56.8mm

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𝑞 ′ 𝑧(1)=𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡h 𝑧 1 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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• Hence the settlement shall

• And the void ratio at any

• Applying a series of loads and

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• For normally consolidated clay, OCR=1

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• Case 2 pre-consolidation stress

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• The EBCS recommends a permissible total settlment

HU-IOT Department of Civil Eng'g 40

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