Kuliah II: Komponen Sel

Makromolekul :
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic
Acids, Vitamins and Minerals

Oleh:
Nursyirwani
 Carbohydrates
 All carbohydrates are composed of carbon(C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in a 1:2:1 empirical
ratio.
 The general empirical formula for a carbohydrate is
(CH2O)n.
If a carbohydrate has 5 carbons atoms, what
would be its empirical formula?
C5H10O5
If a carbohydrate has 12 hydrogen atoms
present, what would be its empirical formula?
C6H12O6
 Most carbohydrates end with the suffix -ose
 Functions of Carbohydrates
 Provide energy source: A fuel source when catabolized
during cellular respiration. Energy is stored in the
chemical bonds within the molecule and released during
cellular respiration. Usually simple sugars.
 Provide energy storage: Plants store energy in a
complex carbohydrate form called starch (amylose).
Animals store energy in a complex carbohydrate in their
muscle tissue and liver in the called glycogen.
 Structural Building Material: Plants build their cell walls
of a complex carbohydrate material called cellulose.
Animals such as arthropods build their exoskeletons of a
complex carbohydrate called chitin. Chitin is also found
in the cell walls of Fungi.
 Classes of Carbohydrates
 There are three major classes of carbohydrates:
1. Monosaccharides (simple sugars) These are
the monomers or building blocks for all other classes of
carbohydrates. Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose,
and ribose.
2. Disaccharides are produced by joining two
simple sugars by dehydration synthesis forming a
covalent bond between them. Examples: sucrose (table
sugar), maltose, lactose
3. Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) are
produced by joining many monosaccharides together by
many dehydration synthesis reactions forming a polymer
molecule. Examples: amylose, glycogen, cellulose, and
chitin
Monosaccharides (Simple sugars)
 They may exist in a linear molecule or in ring forms.
 They are classified according to the number of carbon
atoms in their molecule.
5 carbons are called pentoses ex. Ribose
6 carbons are called hexoses ex. Glucose
 Many forms exists as isomers. Isomers are molecules
which have the same empirical formula (recipe) but have
different structures (shapes) due to arrangement of the
atoms in the molecule. This also gives them different
properties. Glucose and fructose both have the empirical
formula C6H12O6, but they have different structural
formulas or shapes.
 MONOSACCHARIDES ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS
FOR ALL OTHER CARBOHYDRATES!
 Monosaccharide Isomers
H H
H—C—OH
H—C—OH
O H
C O
C C
H H H
C C OH OH H
OH H
C C
OH C C OH
H OH H OH

H—C—OH
α- GLUCOSE FRUCTOSE H
What is the empirical formula for these molecules? C6H12O6
Disaccharide Formation and Structure
 Disaccharides are formed when two
monosaccharides are joined by dehydration
synthesis reaction.
 Disaccharide Formation and Structure

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

H O H H O H H O H H O H
H20
+

O
OH OH HO OH OH OH

α- GLUCOSE α- GLUCOSE MALTOSE

 Polysaccharide Structure and
Formation
 Polysaccharides are chains of
monosaccharides that have been joined by
many dehydration synthesis reactions.
 The function of the polysaccharide depends
on what type of isomer of glucose the
polysaccharide is made. This determines how
the glucose molecules bond together (linkage)
and whether they can be used for energy
storage or structural molecules.
Alpha and Beta Glucose and Their
1,4 Linkages
Alpha and beta glucose are
structural isomers. They differ
only in the location of the
hydrogen and hydroxyl group
location on carbon 1.

Alpha linkage can be broken by

enzymes present in plants and
animals. In other words, it can
be metabolized. (energy storage)

Beta linkage can not be broken

by enzymes present in plants
and animal, therefore it can not
be metabolized. (structural)
 Structural Polysaccharides
 Cellulose is the plant structural carbohydrate and has
beta 1,4 linkage. Cellulose is the primary component of
the plants primary or outermost cell wall.
 Storage Polysaccharides
Starch and glycogen both have alpha 1,4 linkage
and form helical chains that are often highly
branched.

The diagram to the left

show starch or amylose
granules in a plastid of a
plant cell.

The diagram to the left

shows glycogen granules
in a liver section of an
animal. Glycogen is
usually more highly
branched than amylose.
 Structural Polysaccharides
 Chitin is the “plastic-
like” material that
composes the
exoskeletons of
arthropods (insects,
arachnids, and
crustaceans). Most
fungi (mushrooms)
have chitin present
within their cell walls.
Above is a structural monomer of
chitin.
 Lipids
 Lipids are complex molecules
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen.
 Most lipids are non-polar and are
hydrophobic because they contain
hydrocarbon chains.
 If there are double or triple bonds in the
hydrocarbon chain the lipids are said to
be “unsaturated”
 Lipid Functions
 Energy storage: Fats and oils.
 Waterproofing: Waxes and oils
 Insulation: Fat layers (blubber)
 Cushioning: Fat layers (soles of your feet)
 Regulating metabolic processes: Steroids
 Building component of cell membranes:
Phospholipids
 Lipid structure (Triglyceride)
 A triglyceride is
composed of an alcohol
called glycerol
covalently bonded to
three fatty acid
molecules by
dehydration synthesis
reactions. This process
forms three ester groups
between the alcohol and
one with each fatty acid
chain. Is this a saturated or unsaturated
Fat? Why or Why not?
It is saturated because there are no double bonds between carbon atoms in the
fatty acid hydrocarbon chains.
 Triglyceride formation

H H20 H
O HHHHH O HHHHH
H-C—OH HO-C-C-C-C-C-C-H H-C—O-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
HHHHH HHHHH
O HHHHH H20 O HHHHH
H-C—OH HO-C-C-C-C-C-C-H H-C—O -C-C-C-C-C-C-H
HHHHH HHHHH
O HHHHH H20 O HHHHH
H-C—OH HO-C-C-C-C-C-C-H H-C—O -C-C-C-C-C-C-H
HHHHH HHHHH
H H

GLYCEROL FATTY ACIDS 3 H20 TRIGLYCERIDE

What type of reaction forms a triglyceride? Dehydration Synthesis

 Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
When double bonds form in hydrocarbon chains it causes
them to bend. In unsaturated fats this prevents the
molecules from being able to “stack” or “pack” themselves
tightly, thus they remain in a liquid state at room
temperature such as oils. If the hydrocarbon chains are
saturated, the chains are straight and pack themselves
close together forming a solid at room temperature
(animal fat, butter, tallow, lard).
 Steroids
 Steroids are cyclic Cholesterol
hydrocarbons usually
composed of four rings.
 They are involved with
regulating metabolic
processes in the body
because many forms of
them are hormones.
 Testosterone, estrogen, and
progesterone are all
examples of steroid
hormones.
 Cholesterol is the most
common steroid! It is the
building block for other
steroid hormones and also
functions in cell membrane
structure.
 Phospholipids
Phospholipids are a special class of lipids
composed of a phosphate group, glycerol
molecule, and two fatty acid chains. The
phosphate region of the molecule is polar
because it is negativley charged. This makes
it attracted to water or hydrophilic because
of waters bipolar nature. The fatty acid chain
region is composed of hydrocarbon chains
which are very non-polar, therefore this end
is hydrophobic or repels water.
Phospholipid Structure
 Phospholipid Behavior
Because of their bipolar
nature,when placed in
water phospholipids
orient themselves in
small spheres or
“bubbles” with their
nonpolar (hydrophobic)
regions oriented away
from water and their
polar (hydrophilic)
regions exposed to
water. These structure
are called micelles and
are similar in structure
the cell membrane
which is composed in
part of a phospholipid
bilayer.
 Proteins
 Proteins are composed primarily of
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,and oxygen.
However, some contain sulfur.
 They are all composed of structural
monomers called amino acids.
 Their differences from organism to
organism is due to differences in the DNA
which contains the instructions for their
formation. Ex. Eye color, Blood type
 Protein Functions
 Structure: Building structural components of organisms
(collagen, elastin, keratin, microtubules, microfilaments)
 Regulation of metabolic processes: Hormones (insulin)
 Carrying out of metabolic processes: Enzymes
 Membrane component: Carrier proteins, Protein pumps,
Transport of materials through membrane phospholipid
layers
 Self and non-self recognition: Major histocompatibility
complexes (Tissue rejection, immune responses).
 Membrane receptors: Hormone receptors and
neurotransmitter receptors.
Amino Acids: Structural Monomers
Amino acids derive their name
due to the presence of an
amine group and a
carboxylic group as part of
their composition. They
have a central carbon with
the amine group, a carboxyl
group, a hydrogen, and a
variable group (R group)
attached to it. The variable
group is what is different
from amino acid to amino
acid and it is what give the
amino acid its identity.
There are twenty different
variable groups, therefore
there are twenty different
amino acids.
Amino Acid Variety
 Peptide Bond, Dipeptide, and
Polypeptide Formation
A peptide bond is the bond
that is created when two
amino acids are
covalently bonded
together. The carboxyl
group of the first is
bonded to the amine
group of the second.
This is carried out by a
dehydration synthesis
reaction with the loss of a
water molecule. This
forms a dipeptide.
 Peptide Bond, Dipeptide, and
Polypeptide Formation
H H O H H O

N C C –OH + N C C –OH

H R1 H R2

H2O

The peptide bond This is called a

H H O H O
is created between dipeptide. If the
the carboxyl carbon process is
N C C– N C C –OH
of the first amino acid repeated many
and the amine group H times a
R1 H R2
of the second amino polypeptide is
acid. Peptide Bond formed.
 Levels of Protein Structure
Proteins are very complex molecules and their
shape or structure determines their function.
Most proteins have 4 levels of structure. They
are:
a. Primary Level
b. Secondary Level
c. Tertiary Level
d. Quaternary Level
If any level of structure is changed it can create
faulty or nonfunctioning proteins!
 Levels of Protein Structure
The Primary Level is
determined by the
number of amino
acids, the type of
amino acids, and
the sequence of the
amino acids in the
polypeptide chain.
 Levels of Protein Structure
The Secondary Level is
due to interactions
between amino acids in
the chain, usually due
to hydrogen bonding
between oxygen and
hydrogen atoms in
different amino acids.
Two general forms are
taken. Alpha helix, a
spiral structure,
common in globular
proteins, or a Beta
pleated sheet structure,
common in structural
proteins.
 Levels of Protein Structure
The Tertiary Level is due to
the “folding over” of the
alpha helical or beta
pleated sheet structure
on itself. This
configuration is due again
to hydrogen bonding,
hydrophobic
interactions, ionic
bonding interactions,
and the interaction of
sulfur groups on the
variable groups of some
amino acids forming
weak interactions called
disulfide bridges.
 Levels of Protein Structure
The Quaternary Level
of structure is due to
the interactions of
more than one
polypeptide chain to
form the complete,
functional protein.
Hemoglobin and
antibodies exhibit this
level of structure.
Levels of Protein Structure
 Example of Modification in Levels
of Protein Structure
Sickle-cell anemia is
due to a change in
protein structure at
the primary level.
Once the change is
made at the primary
level it has an effect
on all subsequent
levels. Resulting the
formation or irregular
hemoglobin protein
that cause the
molecule to take on
an irregular form
which in turns affects
its normal function
and the shape of the
erythrocytes (red
blood cells).
 Nucleic Acids
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus
 Carriers of the genetic code (recipe book
for proteins)
 Two types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
 Molecule responsible for heredity
 Nucleotide Monomers
Nucleic acids are composed of many monomers
linked together by dehydration synthesis. These
monomers are called nucleotides
(nucleosides). These monomers are
composed of a monosaccharide
(deoxyribose in DNA or ribose RNA), a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
The nitrogenous bases found in DNA are
adenine A, Thymine T, Guanine G, and
Cytosine C. The nitrogenous bases found in
RNA are Adenine A, Guanine G, Cytosine C,
and Uracil U, which replaces thymine.
Nucleotide Structure
 DNA Structure
The structure of DNA was
discovered by an American
scientist (James Watson) and
a British scientist (Francis
Crick) based on the work of
Rosalind Franklin and Maurice
Wilkins. In 1962 Watson and
Crick received the Nobel Prize
for their work. Wilkin later
received a Nobel Prize for
work relating to his
contribution. Rosalind Franklin
however, never received a
Nobel Prize because she died
of cancer before she was
publicly recognized for her
contributions to this effort.
The Double Alpha Helix of DNA
DNA is a double stranded, 5’
alpha helical molecule.
Each strand is composed
of nucleotide covalently
bonded between their
phosphate groups and
the deoxyribose sugar
components in a 5,3
linkage between the
sugars and phosphates.
The nitrogenous bases
point outward from the
linear alternating sugar
phosphate backbone.
3’
The Double Alpha Helix of DNA
When two strands of DNA
join to form the alpha
helix, it is due to
hydrogen bonding
between the
complimentary purine and
pyrimidine bases on each
complimentary strand.
Adenine forms hydrogen
bonds with Thymine and
Guanine forms hydrogen
bonds with Cytosine.
This is called
Complimentary Base
Pairing.
The Double Alpha Helix of DNA
The complimentary
strands run in
opposite directions or
anti-parallel to each
other.
The Double Alpha Helix of DNA
The strands begin to spiral and due to hydrogen
bonding takes on the double alpha helix form.
 Comparing and Contrasting DNA
and RNA
 DNA bases (A,T,G,C)
 Deoxyribose sugar
 Original information for
making proteins
 One form or type
 Found primarily in the
nucleus forms
chromosomes during cell
division
 Large molecule (double
stranded)
 RNA bases (A,U,G,C)
 Ribose sugar
 Working copy for making
proteins
 Variety of forms, m-RNA,
t-RNA, r-RNA
 Found in nucleus and
through the cell
 Smaller molecules (single
stranded)