MODULE 7: THE

RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
ALLEN PAUL P. GUILLERMO, DVM
Faculty, College of Veterinary Medicine
Tarlac Agricultural University
 Functions of the Respiratory Syst
There are five functions of the respiratory system:

• Gas Exchange
• Breathing
• Sound Production
• Olfactory Assistance
• Protection
 Respiration
Respiration is a term that is variously applied to:

• the acts of inhalation and exhalation;

• to the movement of gas molecules in the lungs between alveolar
air and blood in the alveolar capillaries;
• to the exchange of dissolved gases in the tissue between the
systemic capillaries and the surrounding interstitial fluid; and
• to the process conducted within the mitochondria of cells that
results in the production of ATP (and CO2 ) from small organic
molecules by using O2 .
 RESPIRATORY TRACT
• It is the conducting portion or airway
consists of nose, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
and terminal bronchioles.

• Pharynx is a common passageway for

air and food.

• The opening from the pharynx leading

to the continuation of the airway is the
larynx, the organ of phonation (sound
production) in mammals.
 RESPIRATORY TRACT
• The organ of phonation in birds called the syrinx
which is located at the junction
where trachea divides into bronchi.

• The glottis is the slit-like opening between the vocal

cords.

• Extending cranial from the larynx is the epiglottis.

 TRACHEA
 The tracheal wall contains
cartilaginous rings to prevent
collapse of the tracheal airway.

Each tracheal ring
incomplete
is (not joined
dorsally), which permits
variations in diameter by
the
tracheal smooth muscle.
 Trachea is the primary
passageway of air to the lungs.
It is located between larynx
and bronchi.
 Lungs
 The lungs are paired organs located within the thorax.
 In general, the left and right lungs have two and four
lobes, respectively.
 PLEURAL MEMBRANES
 The lungs are surrounded by a serous membrane called as pleural
membrane.
 The pleural membranes play an important role in lubrication
and reducing friction between body parts during respiration.
 The superficial layer lining the thoracic cavity is the parietal pleura and
the layer closely adhering to the lungs is the visceral pleura.
 Inflammation of the pleural membrane is called pleurisy.
 ALVEOLUS
 The pulmonary alveoli are the
principal sites of gas diffusion
between the air and blood.

The separation of air and
blood, and thus the diffusion
distance, is minimal at the
alveolar level.
 Alveolar Epithelium
Different cells are seen, such as,
 Type I alveolar cells, predominant,
which are simple squamous
epithelium and the main site of gas
exchange.
 Type II alveolar (or septal) cells,
cuboidal epithelial cells containing
microvilli that secrete alveolar fluid
containing surfactant.
 Alveolar macrophages remove
debris from the lungs.
 Fibroblasts produce elastic fibers.
 RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
 The respiratory membrane is
where O2 and CO2 diffuse
across the alveolar and
capillary walls.

 It is a very thin membrane

about 0.5 µm thick and
consists of four layers.
 PULMONARY VOLUMES AND CAPA
• Pulmonary volumes and capacities are
recorded by Spirometer. The recordings are
known as Spirogram. It shows the following:

 Tidal Volume (VT) - the volume of air

entering or leaving the nose or mouth per
breath.

 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) - the

volume of gas inhaled into the lungs during a
maximal forced inspiration starting at the end
of a normal tidal inspiration.
 Residual Volume (RV) - the volume of gas left in the lungs after a
maximal forced expiration.
 Total Lung Capacity (TLC) - the volume of air in the lungs after a
maximal inspiratory effort. Determined by the strength of contraction
of the inspiratory muscles in opposition to the inward elastic recoil of
the lungs and chest wall.
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC) - the volume of air inhaled into the lungs
during a maximal inspiratory effort that begins at the end of a normal
tidal expiration.

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) - the volume of gas
remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal tidal expiration.

Vital Capacity (VC) - the volume of air expelled from the lungs
during a maximal forced expiration starting after a maximal
forced inspiration.

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) - the volume of gas expelled
from the lungs during a maximal forced expiration that starts at
the end of normal tidal expiration.
 MODULE 8:
THE GAS LAWS, AND THE
MECHANISM OF
RESPIRATION
ALLEN PAUL P. GUILLERMO, DVM
Faculty, College of Veterinary Medicine
Tarlac Agricultural University
 GAS LAWS
Avogadro's hypothesis: Equal volumes of different gases at equal
contain the same number of molecules.

Dalton's law: Each gas within a mixture exerts its own

pressure independent of the other gases present.

Boyle's Law: At constant temperature pressure of the gas varies

volume.
 GAS LAWS
Charles' law or Gay-Lussac's Law: At constant pressure the volume of
given mass of the gas increases by 1/273 of its volume at zero degree rise
in temperature.

Henry's Law: The weight of a gas absorbed by a liquid with which it does
not combine chemically is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas
to which the liquid is exposed.

Graham's Law: The rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to

the square root of its molecular weight.
 MECHANISM OF RESPIRATIO
 Boyle's law states that at constant temperature and pressure, there is an inver
between volume and pressure of a gas:.

 When this law is applied to the lungs, the pressure inside the lungs decrea
of the lungs increases.

 All gas moves across the blood-gas interface by passive diffusion; that is, ne
an area of high partial pressure to low.
 MECHANISM OF RESPIRATIO
Inhalation

 As the diaphragm contracts, it increases the horizontal dimensions of the

thoracic cavity, thus increasing the volume of the thorax.

 Diaphragmatic contraction enlarges the thorax in a caudal direction, and

intercostals muscle contraction enlarges the thorax in a cranial and outward
direction. This causes the volume of the lungs to expand and thereby
decreases the pressure inside the lungs. This results in inspiration.

Exhalation

 Normal expiration is a passive process involving no active muscle contraction.

 TYPES OF BREATHING
There are two types of breathing: abdominal and coastal.
 Abdominal breathing is characterized by visible movements of the
abdomen.
 The coastal breathing is characterized by
pronounced rib
movements.
 Breathing Patterns
 Eupnea is the normal quiet breathing, with no deviation in frequency or dep

 Dyspnea is difficult breathing, in which visible effort is required to br

conscious of this state.

 Hyperpnea refers to breathing characterized by increased depth, frequ

severe exercise. The animal is not actually conscious of this state.

 Polypnea is rapid, shallow breathing, similar to panting. Polypnea is sim

frequency, but not in depth.

 Apnea refers to a cessation of breathing.

 Respiratory Rate of Different Animals

Horse 10 – 14 / min (12)

Pig 32 – 58 (40)
Cattle 26 – 35 / min. (29)
Dog 20 – 34 (24)
Fowls 15 – 30 / min
Man 12 – 20
Cat 20 – 40 / min
Rat 97 / min
Sheep & Goat 20 – 34 / min (25)
 ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
Artificial respiration is resorted to in cases of:

 cessation of respiration while under general anesthesia

 drowning where the animal has been rescued from water –

mainly applicable for small animals;
 poisoning by narcotics or paralytic substances

 asphyxia from fumes, smoke, gases etc.

 RESPIRATORY PASSAGEWAY RESIS
 Upper respiratory passageways - relatively large, very little resistance
to airflow (unless obstruction such as from food lodging or cancer)
 Lower respiratory passageways - from medium-sized bronchioles on
down, can alter diameter based on autonomic stimulation
 Parasympathetic - causes bronchoconstriction
 Sympathetic - inhibits bronchoconstriction
 Epinephrine - used to treat life-threatening bronchoconstriction such
as during asthma and anaphylactic shock.
 MODULE 9:
ALVEOLAR GAS EXCHANGE
AND THE DEAD-SPACE
VENTILATION
ALLEN PAUL P. GUILLERMO, DVM
Faculty, College of Veterinary Medicine
Tarlac Agricultural University
 ALVEOLAR GAS EXCHANGE

Gases diffuse from an area of their higher concentration to an area of their lo


Two gas laws are applicable to gas exchange.


Dalton's law explains how gases move by diffusion based on pressure
Henry's law describes the diffusion of gas based on its solubility.
 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RESPI
• External respiration, also called pulmonary gas exchange, is
the diffusion of O2 and CO2 from the alveoli to pulmonary
blood.

• Internal respiration, or systemic gas exchange, occurs at the

tissue level, where there is an exchange of O2 and
CO2 between systemic capillaries and tissue.
 VENTILATION-PERFUSION RELATIONSHIP


Low Oxygen in alveolus→ vasoconstriction

High Oxygen in alveolus→ vasodilation
 High CO2 in alveolus→ dilate bronchioles
 Low CO2 in alveolus → constrict bronchioles
 DEAD SPACE VENTILATION
• Physiologic dead space is defined as the volume of
gas that is inspired but takes no part in gas
exchange in the airways and alveoli.

• Therefore, the tidal volume has a dead space

component and an alveolar component.
 RESPIRATORY CENTERS

• The medullary rhythmicity area

is located in the medulla
oblongata, and it controls the
basic respiration rhythm.

It consists of two areas:

• Dorsal respiratory
group
group: of neurons
predominately associated with
inspiratory activity.

• Ventral respiratory
group
group: of neurons containing
inspiratory and expiratory
neurons.
 MODULE 10: HUMORAL
AND MECHANICAL
FACTORS AFFECTING
RESPIRATION

ALLEN PAUL P. GUILLERMO, DVM

Faculty, College of Veterinary Medicine
Tarlac Agricultural University
 PNEUMOTAXIC AND APNEUSTIC AREA
• The pneumotaxic area, also called the pontine respiratory
group, sends inhibitory signals to the inspiratory area. These
signals primarily function to prevent overfilling of the lungs.

• Conversely, the apneustic area located in the

lower pons sends stimulatory signals to the inspiratory area
that prolongs inspiration.
 HERING-BREUER REFLEX
The receptors for these reflexes are located in the lungs,
particularly in the bronchi and bronchioles.

The effect of inflation-receptor stimulation is to inhibit further

inspiration and to stimulate expiratory neurons in the ventral
respiratory group.
 HUMORAL CONTROL
Humoral control refers to those factors in the body fluids that influence ventilation
like CO2, O2 and H+.

 Their concentrations in the blood affect alveolar ventilation in several ways:

 Carbon dioxide increase causes alveolar ventilation to

increase; its
decrease causes alveolar ventilation to decrease.

H+
increase causes alveolar ventilation to increase; its decrease causes
alveolar ventilation to decrease.

 Oxygen decrease causes alveolar ventilation to increase; its

increase
causes alveolar ventilation to decrease.

Peripheral chemoreceptors include the aortic bodies and carotid bodies whose
removal eliminates a respiratory response to hypoxia.
 OXYGEN TRANSPORT
Oxygen is transported in blood in two forms:
 as physically dissolved O2
 O2 in combination with hemoglobin
 CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPO
 The CO2 produced during metabolism is a waste product
and has been eliminated. The flow of CO2 is affected under
a continuous pressure gradient.
 The transport of CO2 is affected in the following ways.
 As physically dissolved CO2
 Transport in chemical combination
 MODULE 11:
THE BUFFER SYSTEM OF THE
BODY, AND AVIAN RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
ALLEN PAUL P. GUILLERMO, DVM
Faculty, College of Veterinary Medicine
Tarlac Agricultural University
 FORMATION OF HCO3 IN PLASMA
• The Chief buffers of plasma that provides for buffering action by combining with
H+ is protein system (Proteinate / Protein)

• The PCO2 in tissues higher than in arterial blood causes diffusion of CO2 into
blood and forces the preceding reversible reaction to the right causing an
increase in HCO3. This increase in HCO3 represents transport due to plasma
proteins.
 FORMATION OF HCO3 BY RB
• The HCO3 diffuse out of RBC into the plasma due to
concentration gradient by exchanging chloride ions from the
plasma across the RBC membrane referred as chloride shift
or Hamburger shift.

• CO2 via H2CO3 - HCO3 ion

 HYPOXIA
 It is a state of inadequate O2 supply to tissue.


Absence of O2 is referred as anoxia.


The Cerebral effects seen will be mostly as
excitement, hallucination, restlessness and
unconsciousness.
 Types of Hypoxia
Anoxic hypoxia (Ambient hypoxia)

• This is due to reduced alveolar ventilation and reduced O2 tension in

blood caused due to obstruction of air passage, paralysis of respiratory
muscle, pulmonary disease or congenital diseases of heart.

Anemic anoxia
 Decrease in O2 carrying capacity of Hb due to low concentration of Hb
seen in hemorrhages, anemia, CO poisoning. In this case the partial
pressure of O2 is normal but insufficient O2 delivery to tissue results in
increased cardiac output and rapid circulation time.
Stagnant hypoxia
 The O2 content of arterial blood is normal, but the tissues receive low
O2 supply because general or local circulation failure.

Histotoxic hypoxia
 The tissue oxidation is interfered due cyanide poisoning. Paralysis of
cytochrome oxidase system is responsible for this condition. The
amount of O2 and pO2 are normal in arterial blood and above normal in
venous blood.
 Respiratory Mucous Secretion
• Clara cells are the non-ciliated portion of bronchioles in the
smaller airways.
• Goblet cells are located in the large air ways
mucous.
secrete
• Bronchial glands also secrete serous and mucous via
sub
mucosal glands.
 Cough reflex

It is a protective reflex initiated by irritation of the sub
epithelial layer or stimulation of stretch receptors in the
large bronchi by the foreign bodies.

Inflammation of the air passage and injury to respiratory
epithelium also causes hyper responsive cough reflex.
 OTHER NON-RESPIRATORY FUNCT
THE LUNGS

Sneezing

Phonation

Cooling of blood going to the brain

Olfaction

Panting in dogs

Purring in cats
 RESPIRATION IN BIRDS
 The lungs are small and attached to ribs and are rigid; they do not expand or
contract during the respiratory cycle.

 Large discrete air sacs are present. Both inspiration and expiration are active.
 Avian Lungs
 Each lung contains one main intrapulmonary primary bronchus, which
divides into these sets of secondary bronchi.
 The Secondary bronchi divide into tertiary bronchi or parabronchi.
 The three sets of secondary bronchi are
 Mediodorsal
 Medioventral
 Lateroventral
 AIR SACS
 These large thin-walled air sacs arise from some secondary bronchi.
 They function as airways.
 There are 9 air sacs ; (5 anterior and 4 posterior )
 unpaired inter clavicular sac, paired cervical and anterior thoracic air sacs) are
anterior air sacs.
 Paired posterior thoracic and large abdominal sacs are the posterior air sacs.
 MECHANISM OF RESPIRATIO
Cycle 1
• Inhalation: Posterior thoracic –
abdominal Air sacs
• Exhalation: Abominal AS – Lungs

Cycle 2
• Inhaltion: Lung – Interclavicular –
Cervical – Anteriro Thoracic AS
• Exhalation: Anterior Thoracic AS –
Trachea

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=kWMmyVu1ueY
Thank You!