Unit-5 Notes

Ad Hoc Networks
© www.skedocs.blogspot.com
Overview
• Short introduction
• Example of a basic routing algorithm
• Routing protocols
• IP configuring
• Security
Short introduction to wireless
multihop networks
• Two or more nodes equipped

with wireless communications
and networking capability
• Base station is not necessary
• A node can communicate directly
with another node that is immediately within radio range
• To communicate with nodes outside its own radio range an
intermediate node is used to forward the packet
• The network is self-organizing and adaptive
(autonomous distributed control is required)
• Nodes are able to detect the presence of other nodes and
join them into the network
• The nodes don’t need to be of the same type
(phone, PDA, laptop, sensor, etc.)
Application areas
• Tactical military
• Emergencies
• Disaster relief
• Sensor
• Meetings/conferences
Challenges
• Dynamic topologies
• Bandwidth-constrained, variable capacity
links
• Energy-constrained
• Limited physical security
• Scalability
Simple routing protocol
example
• Propagation of routing table
• Routing and transmitting
Routing table
• Each terminal has its own routing table
(in proactive routing algorithms)
Destination Next
terminal node
A A
B A
C E
D D
… …
Position notification packet
• Used to make and update the Routing Table
• Broadcasted in a limited area
Contents of the packet:

ID of terminal Timestamp for the ID of hop Hop
which the created created packet source terminal count
the packet
Basic transmitting procedure
• Request to send (RTS)

• Clear to send (CTS)
• Ready to receive (RTR)

Ad Hoc routing protocols
• Proactive
– Large overhead
• Reactive
– Delay before first packet
– Doesn’t scale
• Hybrid scheme
– Clusters
INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL NETWORKS
11
TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
ARCHITECTURE
12
TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
ARCHITECTURE
 Metro network: lie within a city or a region
 Access network: extend from a central office to businesses and
homes
 Interoffice network: connect central offices within a city or a region
 Long-haul network: interconnect cities or regions
13
DESIRED FEATURES OF
TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS
 High capacity
 Efficiently support data traffic
 Use packet switching
 Deliver new and flexible types of services
 Bandwidth on demand
 Restorable connections with different restoration guarantees
14
OPTICAL NETWORKS
 Optical fibers as transmission media
 High bandwidth: tens of Tbps
 Low loss and low bit error rate
 Two ways to increase the transmission capacity on a
fiber:
 Increase the bit rate with time division multiplexing (TDM):
many lower speed data streams are multiplexed into a higher-
speed stream
 Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM): transmit data
simultaneously at multiple wavelengths
 TDM and WDM combined: tens of Tbps
15
OPTICAL NETWORKS
 Two generations
 First generation: switching and processing done by electronics
 SONET
 Second generation: routing and switching done in optical domain
 Wavelength routing networks
16
SYNCHRONOUS OPTICAL NETWORK
(SONET)
 The ANSI standard for synchronous data transmission on
optical media.
 Provide end-to-end circuit-switched connections
 Provide efficient mechanism for multiplexing low-speed
connections into higher-speed connections
 Define a base rate of 51.84 Mbps and a set of multiples of the base rate
known as "Optical Carrier levels (OCx)"
 Provide efficient way to extract low-speed streams from a
high-speed stream at intermediate nodes
 High availability (99.99% to 99.999%)
 Rapid service restoration in the event of failures
17
SONET TRANSMISSION RATES
OC-1 = 51.84 Mbps
OC-3 = 155.52 Mbps
OC-12 = 622.08 Mbps
OC-24 = 1.244 Gbps
OC-48 = 2.488 Gbps
OC-192 = 9.953 Gbps
OC-768 = 39.814 Gbps
18
SONET ELEMENTS
 Terminal multiplexers (TMs): nodes at the ends of
point-to-point links, multiplex and demultiplex traffic
streams
 Add/drop multiplexers (ADMs):drop/add one or more
low-speed streams from/to a high-speed stream, allow
the remaining traffic to pass through
 Deployed in linear and ring networks
 Digitalcrossconnects (DCSs): large number of ports,
extract and switch lower-speed streams (44.736Mbps
and 1.544Mbps), interconnect SONET rings
19
WAVELENGTH ROUTING NETWORKS
 Optical layer provides lightpath services to client
layers (e.g. IP, ATM, SONET)
 Lightpath: a circuit switched connection between two
nodes set up by assigning a dedicated wavelength on
each link in its path
 All links in the path must be assigned the same wavelength
if network nodes are not capable of wavelength conversion
 Wavelength conversion can reduce connection blocking
20
LIGHTPATH SERVICE
 Transparent to bit rate and protocol format
 Advantages
 Service transparency: can provide different services using a single
infrastructure
 Future-proof: allow new services to be deployed rapidly
21
NETWORK ELEMENTS
 Optical line terminals (OLTs):
 multiplex multiple wavelengths into a single fiber
 demultiplex wavelengths on a single fiber into separate
wavelengths
 Optical add/drop multiplexers (OADMs):
 drop/add one or more wavelengths from/to a composite
WDM signal, allow the remaining wavelengths to pass
through
 two line ports and a number of local ports
 Optical crossconnects (OXCs):
 switch wavelengths from one port to another
 large number of ports
22
23
ADVANTAGES OF
WAVELENGTH ROUTING
 Reduce costs (switch ports, electronic processing) at the client
layer by routing pass-through traffic in the optical layer
 Support different traffic patterns
24
OPTICAL PACKET SWITCHING
 Not feasible at present due to
 Lack of optical buffers
 Limited processing capabilities in the optical domain
 Primitive stage of fast optical-switching technology
25
INTRODUCTION TO
STORAGE AREA NETWORK
(SAN)
WHAT IS SAN ABOUT
 Data is Asset
 How to Store Data?
 How to Access Data?
 How to Manage Data Storage?

EVOLUTION IN STORAGE
ARCHITECTURE
PROBLEM WE ARE FACING
 Scalability --Rapidly growing data volume
 Connectivity --Distributed data sharing
 24/7 availability, no single point failure
 High performance
 Easy management
SERVER-ATTACHED STORAGE (SAS)
SAS -- HOW TO SHARE DATA
 Each has own copy  One copy, share
 scalability:Poor  OK
 availability: OK  single point failure
 performance: OK  not that good
 management: how to keep  how to make back up without
data sync? affecting service?
 Connectivity: NA  System dependent
NETWORK-ATTACHED STORAGE(NAS)
NAS
 Scalability: good
 Availability: as long as the LAN and NAS device work,
generally good
 Performance: limited by speed of LAN, traffic conflicts,
inefficient protocol
 Management: OK
 Connection: homogeneous vs. heterogeneous

STORAGE AREA NETWORK (SAN)
STORAGE AREA NETWORK (SAN)
 SAN is created by using
the Fibre Channel to link
peripheral devices such
as disk storage and tape
libraries
SAN VS. NAS
 Dedicated Fibre Channel Network for Storage
 More efficient protocol
 ==> higher availability
 ==> reduce traffic conflict
 ==> longer distance (up to 10 km)

FIBRE CHANNEL
 provides high-performance, any-to-any interconnection.
 server to server
 server to storage
 storage to storage
 combines the characteristics of networks (large address

space, scalability) and I/O channels (high speed, low
latency, hardware error detection) together.
BENEFITS OF SAN
 Scalability ==> Fibre Channel networks allow the
number of attached nodes to increase without loss of
performance because as switches are added, switching
capacity grows. The limitations on the number of
attached devices typical of channel interconnection
disappears.
BENEFITS OF SAN
 High Performance ==> Fibre Channel fabrics provide a
switched 100Mbytes/second full duplex interconnect.
 Storage Management ==> SAN-attached storage allows
the entire investment in storage to be managed in a
uniform way.
BENEFITS OF SAN
 Decoupling Servers and Storage
 the servers can be upgraded while leaving storage in place.
 Storage can be added at will and dynamically allocated to
servers without downtime.
EASY MIGRATION TO SAN
 Host Bus Adapters (HBAs) -- connect servers to the
SAN
 Fibre Channel storage -- connects directly to the SAN
 SCSI-FC bridge -- allows SCSI (disk and tape)

components to be attached to the SAN
 SAN Network Components -- Fibre Channel switches
SUMMARY
 SAN is a high-speed network that allows the
establishment of direct connection between storage
devices and processors (servers) centralized to the extent
supported by the distance of Fibre Channel.
STORAGE AREA NETWORK
INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS
SENSOR NETWORKS
Presented by
Sushanth Sivaram Vallath
WIRELESS SENSORS Telos 4/04
Robust
Low Power
Tiny sensing devices capable of wireless communication 250kbps
Easy to use
WeC 99
“Smart Rock” Rene 11/00
Mica 1/02
Dot 9/01
Small Mica2 12/02

microcontroller
8 kB code 38.4kbps radio
512 B data FSK
Demonstrate
Simple, low-power Designed for scale
radio NEST open exp. Platform
experimentation 128 kB code, 4 kB data
10 kbps ASK Spec 6/03
-sensor boards 40kbps OOK/ASK radio “Mote on
EEPROM (32 KB)
512 kB Flash a chip”
Simple sensors -power boards
WHAT ARE SENSOR NETWORKS
spatially distributed sensors to monitor conditions at
different locations, such as temperature, sound,
vibration, pressure, motion or pollutants.
PLATFORMS
 Berkeley Motes
 Tiny OS
 nesC
 Ns-2
 TOSSIM
APPLICATIONS OF WSN
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Vehicular movement
 Pressure
 Noise levels
 Mechanical stress levels on attached objects
 Speed, direction
 Etc…
FACTORS INFLUENCING SENSOR
NETWORK DESIGN
 Fault tolerance
 Scalability
 Operating environment
 Sensor network topology
 Transmission media
 Power consumption
SENSORS REPRESENTATION
 Communication Graph
 Sensors are nodes
 Link between the sensors are the edges
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
 LEACH
 Directed Diffusion
 PEGASIS
 TEEN
 APTEEN
 Etc…
SENSOR ISSUES
 Energy Constraint
 High Communication cost
 & Lot of other issues
MANAGEMENT ISSUES
 Conversion of data to Information
 Data access control
ACTIVE AREAS IN WSN
 Routing
 Topology control
 Data management, aggregation and query
 MAC protocols
 Target tracking, resource discovery
 Monitoring and maintenance
 Sensor validation
 Power issues
 Coverage and Connectivity
PEER-TO-PEER OVERLAY NETWORKS
OUTLINE
 Overview of P2P overlay networks
 Applications of overlay networks
 Classification of overlay networks
 Structured overlay networks
 Unstructured overlay networks
 Overlay multicast networks
OVERVIEW OF P2P OVERLAY
NETWORKS
 What is P2P systems?
 P2P refers to applications that take advantage of resources
(storage, cycles, content, human presence) available at the
end systems of the internet.
 What is overlay networks?
 Overlay networks refer to networks that are constructed on
top of another network (e.g. IP).
 What is P2P overlay network?
 Any overlay network that is constructed by the Internet
peers in the application layer on top of the IP network.
OVERVIEW OF P2P OVERLAY
NETWORKS
 P2P overlay network properties
 Efficient use of resources
 Self-organizing
 All peers organize themselves into an application layer network on top of IP.
 Scalability
 Consumers of resources also donate resources
 Aggregate resources grow naturally with utilization
 Reliability
 No single point of failure
 Redundant overlay links between the peers
 Redundant data source
 Ease of deployment and administration
 The nodes are self-organized
 No need to deploy servers to satisfy demand.
 Built-in fault tolerance, replication, and load balancing
 No need any change in underlay IP networks
APPLICATIONS OF P2P OVERLAY
NETWORKS
 P2P file sharing
 Napster, Gnutella, Kaza, Emule, Edonkey, Bittorent, etc.
 Application layer multicasting
 P2P media streaming
 Content distribution
 Distributed caching
 Distributed storage
 Distributed backup systems
 Grid computing
CLASSIFICATION OF OVERLAY
NETWORKS
 Structured overlay networks
 Are based on Distributed Hash Tables (DHT)
 the overlay network assigns keys to data items and
organizes its peers into a graph that maps each data key to a
peer.
 Unstructured overlay networks
 The overlay networks organize peers in a random graph in
flat or hierarchical manners.
 Overlay multicast networks
 The peers organize themselves into an overlay tree for
multicasting.
STRUCTURED OVERLAY NETWORKS
 Overlay topology construction is based on NodeID’s that are
generated by using Distributed Hash Tables (DHT).
 In this category, the overlay network assigns keys to data items
and organizes its peers into a graph that maps each data key to
a peer.
 This structured graph enables efficient discovery of data items
using the given keys.
 Storing the objects in the networks is based on
 It Guarantees object detection in O(log n) hops.
 Examples: Content Addressable Network (CAN), Chord,
Pastry.
UNSTRUCTURED P2P OVERLAY
NETWORKS
 An Unstructured system composed of peers joining the
network with some loose rules, without any prior
knowledge of the topology.
 Network uses flooding or random walks as the
mechanism to send queries across the overlay with a
limited scope.
 When a peer receives the flood query, it sends a list of
all content matching the query to the originating peer.
 Examples: FreeNet, Gnutella,KaZaA, BitTorrent
UNSTRUCTURED P2P FILE SHARING
NETWORKS
 CentralizedDirectory based P2P systems
 Pure P2P systems
 Hybrid P2P systems
NETWORKS
 Centralized Directory based P2P systems
 All peers are connected to central entity
 Peers establish connections between each other on
demand to exchange user data (e.g. mp3
compressed data)
 Central entity is necessary to provide the service
 Central entity is some kind of index/group
database
 Central entity is lookup/routing table
 Examples: Napster, Bittorent
NETWORKS
 Pure P2P systems
 Any terminal entity can be removed without
loss of functionality
 No central entities employed in the overlay
 Peers establish connections between each other
randomly
 To route request and response messages
 To insert request messages into the overlay
 Examples: Gnutella, FreeNet

NETWORKS

Hybrid P2P systems
 Main characteristic, compared
to pure P2P: Introduction of
another dynamic hierarchical
layer
 Election process to select an
assign Superpeers
 Superpeers: high degree
(degree>>20, depending on Superpeer
network size)
 Leafnodes: connected to one or
more Superpeers (degree<7)
 Example: KaZaA leafnode
P2P: CENTRALIZED DIRECTORY
Bob
original “Napster” design
centralized
1) when peer connects, it informs directory server
1
central server:
peers
 IP address
1
 content
2) Alice queries for “Hey Jude” 1 3

3) Alice requests file from Bob 2 1
Alice
P2P: PROBLEMS WITH CENTRALIZED
DIRECTORY
 Singlepoint of failure file transfer is
 Performance bottleneck
decentralized, but locating
content is highly
 Copyright infringement
decentralized
QUERY FLOODING: GNUTELLA
 fully distributed overlay network: graph
 no  edge between peer X and Y
central server
 public
if there’s a TCP connection
domain protocol
 all active peers and edges is
 many Gnutella clients
overlay net
implementing protocol  Edge is not a physical link
 Given peer will typically be

connected with < 10 overlay
neighbors
GNUTELLA: PROTOCOL
File transfer:
 Query message
HTTP
sent over existing TCP
connections
Query
 peers forward
QueryHit
Query message
e ry Qu
 QueryHit ery
Qu Hit
sent over ery
Qu
reverse
Query
path
QueryHit
Scalability:
Qu
limited scope er
y
flooding
GNUTELLA: PEER JOINING
1. Joining peer X must find some other peer in
Gnutella network: use list of candidate peers
2. X sequentially attempts to make TCP with peers on
list until connection setup with Y
3. X sends Ping message to Y; Y forwards Ping
message.
4. All peers receiving Ping message respond with Pong
message
5. X receives many Pong messages. It can then setup
additional TCP connections
Peer leaving: see homework problem!
EXPLOITING HETEROGENEITY:
KAZAA
 Each peer is either a group
leader or assigned to a group
leader.
 TCP connection between peer
and its group leader.
 TCP connections between some
pairs of group leaders.
 Group leader tracks the
content in all its children.
o rdinary pe er
grou p-leader peer
n eigho ring rela tio nships

in overlay ne twork
KAZAA: QUERYING
 Each file has a hash and a descriptor
 Client sends keyword query to its group leader
 Group leader responds with matches:
 For each match: metadata, hash, IP address
 Ifgroup leader forwards query to other group leaders,
they respond with matches
 Client then selects files for downloading
 HTTP requests using hash as identifier sent to peers holding
desired file
KAZAA TRICKS
 Limitations on simultaneous uploads
 Request queuing
 Incentive priorities
 Parallel downloading
INTERNET P2P TRAFFIC STATISTICS
 Between 50 and 65 percent of all download traffic is P2P
related.
 Between 75 and 90 percent of all upload traffic is P2P related.
 And it seems that more people are using p2p today
 So what do people download?

 61,4 percent video
11,3 percent audio
27,2 percent is games/software/etc.
 Source: http://torrentfreak.com/peer-to-peer-traffic-statistics/
OVERLAY MULTICASTING
 Motivation
 IP multicast has not be deployed over the Internet due to
some fundamental problems in congestion control, flow
control, security, group management and etc.
 For the new emerging applications such as multimedia
streaming, internet multicast service is required.
 Solution: Overlay Multicasting
 Overlay multicasting (or Application layer multicasting) is
increasingly being used to overcome the problem of non-ubiquitous
deployment of IP multicast across heterogeneous networks.
 Main idea
 Internet peers organize themselves into an overlay tree on top of the
Internet.
 Packet replication and forwarding are performed by peers in the
application layer by using IP unicast service.
 Overlay multicasting benefits
 Easy deployment
It is self-organized

 it is based on IP unicast service
 There is not any protocol support requirement by the Internet routers.
 Scalability
 It is scalable with multicast groups and the number of members in
each group.
 Efficient resource usage
 Uplink resources of the Internet peers is used for multicast data
distribution.
 It is not necessary to use dedicated infrastructure and bandwidths for
massive data distribution in the Internet.
 Classification of overlay multicast approaches
 DHT based
 Treebased
 Mesh-tree based
 DHT based
 Overlay tree is constructed on top of the DHT based P2P
routing infrastructure such as pastry, CAN, Chord, etc.
 Example: Scribe in which the overlay tree is constructed on
a Pastry networks by using a multicast routing algorithm
(similar to core based tree (CBT)).
 Tree based
 Group members self-organize themselves into a tree by explicitly
picking a parent for each new group.
 Nodes on the tree may establish and maintain control links to one
another in addition to the links provided by the data tree. As such,the
tree, with these additional control links constitutes the control topology
in a tree structure.
 This approach is simple and is capable of building efficient data
delivery trees.
 The tree building algorithm must prevent loops and handle tree partition
as the failure of a single node may cause a partition of the overlay
topology.
 Examples: ALMA, ALMI, OMNI, NICE, ZIGZAG, BTP, Overcast, …
 Mesh-tree based
 The mesh-tree approach is a two-step design to the overlay topology.
 It is common for group members to first distributedly organize themselves into
an overlay control topology called the mesh. A routing protocol runs across this
control topology and defines a unique overlay path to each and every member.
 Data distribution trees rooted at any member is then built across this mesh based
on some multicast routing protocols, e.g. DVMRP.
 Compared to tree only design, mesh-tree approach is more complex.
 it has the advantages of avoiding replicating group management functions
across multiple (per-source) trees, providing more resilience to failure of
members, leveraging on standard routing algorithms thus simplifying overlay
construction and maintenance as loop avoidance and detection are built-in
mechanisms in routing algorithms.
 Examples: Narada, Kudos, Scattercast, Yoid

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Ad Hoc Networks

• Two or more nodes equipped

Contents of the packet:

• Request to send (RTS)

• Ready to receive (RTR)

 Long-haul network: interconnect cities or regions

 How to Manage Data Storage?

 Connection: homogeneous vs. heterogeneous

 ==> reduce traffic conflict

 ==> longer distance (up to 10 km)

 combines the characteristics of networks (large address

 SCSI-FC bridge -- allows SCSI (disk and tape)

Small Mica2 12/02

 Sensor network topology

 Examples: Gnutella, FreeNet

2) Alice queries for “Hey Jude” 1 3

 Given peer will typically be

grou p-leader peer

n eigho ring rela tio nships

 So what do people download?

 it is based on IP unicast service

 There is not any protocol support requirement by the Internet routers.

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