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Review of Scientific Notation
Review of Scientific Notation
Review of Scientific Notation
Engineering
Fig. 1-3: Atomic structure showing the nucleus and its orbital rings of electrons. (a) Carbon (C)
atom has 6 orbital electrons to balance 6 protons in the nucleus. (b) Copper (Cu) atom has 29
protons in the nucleus and 29 orbital electrons.
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1-2: Electrons and Protons in the Atom
Atomic number = 29
K=2
(complete)
L=8
(complete)
K
L M = 18
(complete)
M
N=1
N (incomplete)
1-3: Structure of the Atom
The valence electron is weakly bound to the nucleus. This
makes copper an excellent conductor.
29 protons
atomic number = 29
29 electrons
(net charge = 0)
1 valence electron
1-4: The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge
Fig. 1-5: Physical force between electric charges. (a) Opposite charges attract. (b) Two
negative charges repel each other. (c) Two positive charges repel.
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1-4: The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge
Charge of an Electron
The charge of a single electron, or Qe, is 0.16 × 10−18 C.
It is expressed
−Qe = 0.16 × 10−18 C
(−Qe indicates the charge is negative.)
The charge of a single proton, QP, is also equal to
0.16 × 10−18 C .
However, its polarity is positive instead of negative.
Problem 1-2
-Q = 3C
1-5: The Volt Unit of Potential Difference
Fig. 1-7: The amount of work required to move electrons between two charges depends on their
difference of potential. This potential difference (PD) is equivalent for the examples in (a), (b),
and (c).
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1-5: The Volt Unit of Potential Difference
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Problem 1-5
V = 8V
1-6: Charge in Motion Is Current
When the potential difference between two charges
causes a third charge to move, the charge in motion is
an electric current.
Current is a continuous flow of electric charges such as
electrons.
1-6: Charge in Motion Is Current
Fig. 1-9: Potential difference across two ends of wire conductor causes drift of free electrons
throughout the wire to produce electric current.
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1-6: Charge in Motion Is Current
The amount of current is dependent on the amount of
voltage applied.
The greater the amount of applied voltage, the greater
the number of free electrons that can be made to move,
producing more charge in motion, and therefore a larger
value of current.
Current can be defined as the rate of flow of electric
charge. The unit of measure for electric current is the
ampere (A).
1 A = 6.25 × 1018 electrons (1C) flowing past a given
point each second, or 1A= 1C/s.
The letter symbol for current is I or i, for intensity.
Problem 1-14
I = 20A
1-7: Resistance Is
Opposition to Current
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current.
A component manufactured to have a specific value of
resistance is called a resistor.
Conductors, like copper or silver, have very low
resistance.
Insulators, like glass and rubber, have very high
resistance.
The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
The symbol for resistance is R.
1-7: Resistance Is
Opposition to Current
Fig. 1-10: (a) Wire-wound type of resistor with cement coating for insulation. (b) Schematic
symbol for any type of fixed resistor.
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Problem 1-19
a) R = 1/0.001 S = 1000 Ω = 1 kΩ
b) R = 1/0.01 S = 100 Ω
2-2: Resistor Color Coding
Carbon resistors are small, so their R value in ohms is
marked using a color-coding system.
0 Black
1 Brown
2 Red
3 Orange
4 Yellow
5 Green
6 Blue
7 Violet
8 Gray
Fig. 2-8: How to read color stripes on
carbon resistors for R in ohms. 9 White
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2-2: Resistor Color Coding
Applying the Color Gold = 5%
Code
The amount by 5% of 4700 = 235
which the actual 4700 - 235 = 4465
Yellow = 4
R can differ from
4700 + 235 = 4935
the color-coded
value is its Violet = 7
tolerance. Red = 2
Tolerance is
The actual value can range from 4465 to 4935 .
usually stated in
percentages.
47700
00 is the nominal value.
2-2: Resistor Color Coding
What is the nominal value and permissible ohmic
range for each resistor shown?
1 k (950 to 1050 )
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1-8: The Closed Circuit
An open circuit
(no current is flowing)
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1-9: Direction of the Current
With respect to the positive and negative terminals of
the voltage source, current has direction.
When free electrons are considered as the moving
charges we call the direction of current electron flow.
Electron flow is from the negative terminal of the voltage
source through the external circuit back to the positive
terminal.
Conventional current is considered as the motion of
positive charges. Conventional current flows in the
opposite direction from electron flow (positive to
negative).
1-9: Direction of the Current
Fig. 1-13: Direction of I in a closed
circuit, shown for electron flow
and conventional current. The
circuit works the same way no
matter which direction you
consider. (a) Electron flow
indicated with dashed arrow in
diagram. (b) Conventional
current indicated with solid
arrow. (c) Electron flow as in (a)
but with reversed polarity of
voltage source. (d) Conventional
I as in (b) but reversed polarity
for V.
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1-10: Direct Current
and Alternating Current
Direct current (dc) flows in only one direction.
The unit for 1 cycle per second is the hertz (Hz). This
unit describes the frequency of reversal of voltage
polarity and current direction.
1-10: Direct Current
and Alternating Current
Fig. 1-14: Steady dc voltage of fixed polarity, Fig. 1-15: Sine-wave ac voltage with
such as the output of a battery. Note the alternating polarity, such as from an ac
schematic symbol at left. generator. Note the schematic symbol at
left. The ac line voltage in your home has
this waveform.
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1-11: Sources of Electricity
All materials have electrons and protons.