Chapter Three

Individual Attitudes
and Motivation
What are attitudes?

Cognitive Component
Attitudes The opinion or belief segment of an
attitude
Evaluative “I just found out I am paid 20% less than
statements or my coworkers.”
judgments Affective Component
concerning
objects, people, The emotional or feeling segment of an
or events attitude. “I feel angry that I am not being
treated fairly.”
reflects how
Behavioral Component
one feels
about An intention to behave in a certain
way toward someone or something
something
“I am going to quit this job soon as I can and tell
everyone how terrible this company is.”
Types of Attitudes

Job Satisfaction
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an
individual holds toward his or her job

Job Involvement
Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and
considering performance important to self-worth

Organizational Commitment
Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and
wishing to maintain membership in the organization
(Affective, Normative, and Continuance Commitment)
Types of Attitudes, cont’d

Perceived Organizational Support

Degree to which employees feel the organization cares
about their well-being

Employee Engagement
An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with,
and enthusiasm for the organization
 Measuring Job Satisfaction

Average Job Satisfaction by Facets

 Single Global Rating Method
– Only a few general
questions
– Remarkably accurate
 Summation Score Method
– Identifies key elements in
the job and asks for specific
feeling about them
 What Causes Job Satisfaction?

 The Work Itself – the strongest correlation with overall

satisfaction
 Social Component – there is a strong correlation with
how people view the social context of their work
 Pay – not correlated after individual reaches a level of
comfortable living

 Advancement
 Supervision
 Coworkers
 Expressing Dissatisfaction

Exit Voice
Behavior directed toward Active and constructive
leaving the organization attempts to improve
conditions

Loyalty Neglect
Passively waiting for Allowing conditions to
conditions to improve worsen
 The Benefits of Satisfaction

Better job and organizational performance

Better organizational citizenship behaviors
(OCB – Discretionary behaviors that
contribute to organizational effectiveness
but are not part of employees’ formal job
description)
Greater levels of customer satisfaction
Generally lower absenteeism and turnover
Decreased instances of workplace deviance
 Global Implications

Is job satisfaction a U.S.

concept?
 Cross-cultural
differences do exist
but job satisfaction
seems to be a global
concern
Are employees in Western
cultures more satisfied
with their jobs?
 Yes, but that may be
due to the greater
value Westerners put
on positive emotions
and happiness.
 Implications for Managers

Employee attitudes give warnings of potential

problems and influence behavior
 Satisfied and committed employees exhibit behaviors that
increase organizational outcomes
 Managers must measure job attitudes in order to improve
them
 Most important elements a manager can focus on are the
intrinsic parts of the job: making the work challenging and
interesting
 High pay is not enough to create satisfaction
What Is Motivation?

Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal
The desire to achieve a goal

1. Intensity: How hard a person tries

2. Direction: Toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: How long a person tries
Performance = f(A x M x O)
 Theories of Motivation
 Need based and Process based theories
 Need based: types of needs that must be met in order to
motivate individuals.
 Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
 Alderfer’s ERG theory
 Theory Y and Theory X
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 David McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory
 Process based
o Equity
o Expectancy
o MBO/Goal setting
o others
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization; as each need
is substantially satisfied, the next
need becomes dominant.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs Self and self-actualization
needs
Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological
 ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer

ERG theory’s main contribution

to the literature is its relaxation
of Maslow’s assumptions. For
example, ERG theory does not
rank needs in any particular
order and explicitly recognizes
that more than one need may
operate at a given time.
 Having Little Ambition

Theory X Disliking Work

Managers See Workers as…

Avoiding Responsibility

Self-Directed

Theory Y Enjoying Work

Managers See Workers as…

Accepting Responsibility
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Both Hygiene Factors & Motivators are
Hygiene Important
Factors
•Salary Separate Constructs Motivators
– Hygiene Factors—Extrinsic
•Company and Related to Dissatisfaction •Achievement
policy •Responsibility
– Motivation Factors—Intrinsic
•Work and Related to Satisfaction
•Growth
Conditions
•Recognition
•security
•Perks (free
dry cleaning,
coffee,
snacks, etc.)
 David McClelland’s Acquired-Needs
Theory
 Individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their
life experiences.
 These needs are the need for achievement, the need for
affiliation, and the need for power.
 Need for achievement=have a strong need to be
successful.
 need for affiliation=want to be liked and accepted by
others.
 need for power=want to influence others and control their
environment.
 Relationship of Various Needs Theories

Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland

Self
Need for
actualization Growth Motiv achievement
Esteem ators Need for
Social power
Relate
dness Hygiene Need for
Safety factors affiliation

Physiolo Exist
gical ence
What Is MBO?

Management by Objectives (MBO)

A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period, with
feedback on goal progress

Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback
Cascading of Objectives
Equity Theory

Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with
those of others and then respond to eliminate any
inequities

Referent
Comparisons:
•Self-inside
•Self-outside
•Other-inside
•Other-outside
Choices For Dealing With Inequity

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
 Equity and Justice

Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the
outcome (the final distribution) Procedural Justice
“Who got what?” Perceived fairness of the
process used to determine
the outcome (the final
distribution)
Interactional Justice “How was who gets what
The degree to which one is decided?”
treated with dignity and
respect.
“Was I treated well?”
Expectancy Theory
Ways in Which Managers Can Influence
Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence
Job Design and Scheduling

Job Rotation (e.g., “Cross-training”)

The periodic shifting of a worker from
one task to another

Job Enlargement
The long-term horizontal
expansion of jobs

Job Enrichment
The long-term vertical expansion
of jobs
What Is Employee Involvement (EI)?
Employee Involvement Program
A participative process that uses the entire capacity of
employees and is designed to encourage increased
commitment to the organization’s success
Linking EI Programs and Motivation Theories

Theory Y Two-Factor
(Believing Employee
Theory
Employees Involvement
Want to Be Programs (Intrinsic
Involved) Motivation)

ERG Theory
(Employee
Needs)
Rewarding Employees: Four Aspects

•What to Pay (Internal vs. external equity)

•How to Pay (e.g., Piece rate, merit based, bonuses,
profit sharing, gain sharing, ESOPs, skill-based pay)
•What Benefits to Offer (e.g., Flexible benefits)
•How to Recognize Employees
Rewarding Employees: Variable Pay Programs

Variable Pay Programs

A portion of an employee’s pay is based on some
individual and/or organization measure of performance.
• Piece rate pay plans
• Profit sharing plans
• Gain sharing plans
Variable Pay Programs (cont’d)
Piece Rate Pay Plans
Workers are paid a fixed sum for each
unit of production completed.

Profit Sharing Plans

Organization-wide programs that distribute compensation
based on some established formula designed around a
company’s profitability

Gain Sharing
An incentive plan in which improvements in group
productivity determine the total amount of money that is
allocated.
Rewarding Employees

Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)

Company-established benefit plans in which employees
acquire stock as part of their benefits.
Skill-based Pay Plans

Pay levels are based on how many skills employees

have or how many jobs they can do.
Linking Skill-based Plans and Motivation Theories

Equity
Reinforcement Skill-based Pay
Theory Plans Theory

McClelland’s
ERG Theory
Need for
(Growth)
Achievement
 Employee Recognition Programs
 Intrinsic rewards: Stimulate Intrinsic Motivation
– Personal attention given to employee
– Approval and appreciation for a job well done
– Growing in popularity and usage
 Benefits of Programs
– Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition
– ***Inexpensive to implement ***
– Encourages repetition of desired
behaviors
 Drawbacks of Programs
– Susceptible to manipulation by management
– You HAVE to be sincere and make it open to all