POPULATION AND

SAMPLING
WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS
OF YOUR SCOPE AND
DELIMITATION?
• Remember when you were taught how to write your scope and
delimitation, you stated the subjects, participants, or
respondents of your study. You also described their
characteristics which qualify them to be the source of your
research data.
• The next question you have to answer is, how many of the subjects,
participants, or respondents should be selected as a source of data?
• The sampling procedure should be aligned to your chosen research design.
WHAT IS THE FIRST STEP IN
DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE?
• The first step in determining the sample size is
identifying the population of the topic of interest
WHAT IS A POPULATION?
• The population is the totality of all the objects, elements,
persons, and characteristics under consideration.
• It is understood that this population possesses common
characteristics about which the research aims to explore.
 TWO TYPES OF POPULATION

• TARGET POPULATION AND ACCESSIBLE POPULATION.

• The actual population is the target population, for example, all Senior High School Students
enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in the Division of
Cagayan de Oro City.
• While the accessible population is the portion of the population in which the researcher has
reasonable access, for example all Senior High School enrolled, STEM strand at Marayon
Science High School – X.
 WHAT DO WE DO WHEN THE WHOLE
POPULATION IS TOO COSTLY OR TIME-
CONSUMING OR IMPRACTICAL TO CONSIDER?
 A SAMPLE IS IDENTIFIED.
•  A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the
sample is always less than the total size of the population. In research, a
population doesn't always refer to people.
WHAT DO WE EMPLOY TO GET A
SAMPLE FROM A POPULATION?
• We employ SAMPLING
• Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a
subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them
and estimate the characteristics of the whole population.
• It pertains to the systematic process of selecting the group to be analyzed in the
research study.
• The goal is to get information from a group that represents the target population.
Once a good sample is obtained, the generalizability and applicability of findings
increases.
APPROACHES TO
SAMPLING
 HEURISTICS
• Refers to the RULE OF THE THUMB for sample size.
• Gay (1976) stated by Cristobal and Dela Cruz-Cristobal (2017, p 172),
sample sizes for different research designs are the following:
 HEURISTICS
• Lunenberg and Irby (2008), as cited by Barrot (2017, p 107), also
suggested different sample sizes for each quantitative research design.
 LITERATURE REVIEW
• Reading similar or related literature and studies to your current research
study. Since you are done writing your review of related literature and
studies, you might want to recall how these studies determine sample size.
Using this approach increases the validity of your sampling procedure.
 FORMULAS
• Formulas are also being established for the computation of an acceptable sample size.
The common formula is SLOVIN’S FORMULA.
EXAMPLE
 POWER ANALYSIS
• This approach is founded on the PRINCIPLE OF POWER ANALYSIS or POWER OF
HYPOTHESIS TEST.
• TWO PRINCIPLES TO CONSIDER:
A. STATISTICAL POWER
• the probability of rejecting the null. This suggests that indeed there is a relationship between the
independent and dependent variables of the research study
• In short, it is the probability that the test will detect an effect that actually exists.

B. EFFECT SIZE
• the difference between the treatment group and the control group is the sample estimate 
• Ideal statistical power = 80%
• With the statistical power, it will be used to identify the
sufficient sample size for measuring the effect size of a certain
treatment.
• The level of difference between the experimental group and the
control group refers to effect size.
• Power analysis helps you manage an essential tradeoff. As you increase the sample size, the hypothesis test
 gains a greater ability to detect small effects
• However, larger sample sizes cost more money. And, there is a point where an effect becomes so minuscule
that it is meaningless in a practical sense.
• You don’t want to collect a large and expensive sample only to be able to detect an effect that is too small to
be useful! Nor do you want an underpowered study that has a low probability of detecting an important 
effect.
• YOUR GOAL IS TO COLLECT A LARGE ENOUGH SAMPLE TO HAVE SUFFICIENT POWER
TO DETECT A MEANINGFUL EFFECT—BUT NOT TOO LARGE TO BE WASTEFUL.
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
• refers to the selection of a sample from a population, when this selection is
based on the principle of randomization, that is, random selection or
chance.
• more complex, more time-consuming and usually more costly than non-
probability sampling.
• reliable estimates can be produced and statistical inferences can be
made about the population.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

• Every member of the population has an equal chance of being

selected.
• To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like
• RANDOM NUMBER GENERATORS
• FISHBOWL METHOD
• ROULETTE
• or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.
EXAMPLE: SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

• You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees

of Company X. You assign a number to every employee in the
company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number
generator to select 100 numbers.
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

• Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
• If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the
list that might skew the sample.
EXAMPLE: SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

• All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the
first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From
number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36,
and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING

• Also gives an equal chance to all members of the population to be chosen, however, the
population is first divided into strata or groups before selecting the samples (e.g.
gender, age range, income bracket, job role).
• The samples are chosen from these subgroups and not directly from the entire population.
• Involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It
allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly
represented in the sample.
• Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be
sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample
from each subgroup.
• The number of members per subgroup is divided by the total
accessible population. The percentage result of members per subgroup
will be multiplied from the computed total sample size. After obtaining the
sample size per strata, then simple random sampling or systematic
sampling will be done for the selection of samples from each group.
CLUSTER SAMPLING

• Involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to
the whole sample.

• Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
• If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters
themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using multistage
sampling.
• This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of
error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee
that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.
MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
• selected based non-random criteria
• not every individual has a chance of being included.
• easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias.
• inferences you can make about the population are weaker
• conclusions may be more limited.
• often used in exploratory and qualitative research.
• aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial
understanding of a small or under-researched population.
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

• Includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.

• This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the
sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
EXAMPLE: CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

• You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after
each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic.
This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the
same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the
students at your university.
VOLUNTARY RESPONSE SAMPLING

• Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of

access.

• Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people
volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).
• Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will
inherently be more likely to volunteer than others.
EXAMPLE: VOLUNTARY RESPONSE SAMPLING

• You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of students decide to
complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who
responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student
support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all
students.
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

• This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher
using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the
research.
• It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where
the population is very small and specific.
EXAMPLE: PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

• You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at your
university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs
in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING

• If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants
via other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in
contact with more people.
• You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of
all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person
who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other
homeless people that she knows in the area.
QUOTA SAMPLING

• Sampling is done until a specific number of units (quotas) for various subpopulations
have been selected.
• Quota sampling is a means for satisfying sample size objectives for the subpopulations.
ADVANTAGES

• Quick and convenient

As a general rule, non-probability samples can be constituted quickly, which allows the
survey to be launched, executed and finished in shorter times.
• Inexpensive
It usually only takes a few hours to an interviewer to conduct such a survey. As well, non-
probability samples are generally not spread out geographically, therefore travelling
expenses for interviewers are low. In web panels or crowdsourcing, no interviewers are
necessary. Tracing and persuasion of non-respondents are not required or less
demanding.
• Reduce respondent burden
In the case of volunteer sampling or crowdsourcing, respondents volunteer to participate
in the survey without being solicited personally.
DISADVANTAGES

• Selection bias
In order to make inferences about the population, it requires strong assumptions about the similarity
between the sample and the population even though the respondents are self-selected. Due to the
selection bias presented in all non-probability samples, these are often dangerous assumptions to
make. When generalization to the whole population is to be made, probability sampling should be
performed instead.
• Noncoverage (undercoverage) bias
Since some units in the population can have no chance of being included in the sample, it results
noncoverage bias. For example, people without the internet at home might never be selected for a
web panel and may differ from those with the internet.
• Difficulty of assessing the quality
It is impossible to determine the probability that a unit in the population is selected for the sample, so
reliable estimates and estimates of sampling error cannot be computed.
RESEARCH
INSTRUMENTS
 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

• Basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific research problems.
• Common instruments are
• PERFORMANCE TESTS
• QUESTIONNAIRES
• INTERVIEWS
• OBSERVATION CHECKLIST
• The first two instruments are usually used in quantitative research, while the last two instruments are
often in qualitative research.
• However, interviews and observation checklists can still be used in quantitative research once the
information gathered is translated into numerical data.
Method When to use How to collect data

Experiment To test a causal relationship. Manipulate variables and measure

their effects on others.

Survey To understand the general Distribute a list of questions to a

characteristics or opinions of a sample online, in person or over-
group of people. the-phone.

Interview/focus group To gain an in-depth Verbally ask participants open-

understanding of perceptions or ended questions in individual
opinions on a topic. interviews or focus group
discussions.
Observation To understand something in its Measure or survey a sample
natural setting. without trying to affect them.

Ethnography To study the culture of a Join and participate in a

community or organization first- community and record your
hand. observations and reflections.

Archival research To understand current or Access manuscripts, documents

historical events, conditions or or records from libraries,
practices. depositories or the internet.

Secondary data collection To analyze data from populations Find existing datasets that have
that you can’t access first-hand. already been collected, from
sources such as government
agencies or research
organizations.
IN YOUR BOOK

1.OBSERVATION
2.SURVEY
A. QUESTIONNAIRE
B. INTERVIEW
3.EXPERIMENT
4.CONTENT ANALYSIS
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT
• CONCISE. A good research instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the needed data.
• SEQUENTIAL. Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from
simplest to the most complex. In this way, the instrument will be more favorable to the
respondents to answer
• VALID AND RELIABLE. The instrument should pass the tests of validity and reliability to get
more appropriate and accurate information.
• EASILY TABULATED. Since you will be constructing an instrument for quantitative research,
this factor should be considered. Hence, before crafting the instruments, the researcher makes
sure that the variable and research questions are established. These will be an important basis for
making items in the research instruments.
 3 WAYS IN DEVELOPING
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
• ADOPTING AN INSTRUMENT from the already utilized instruments
from previous related studies
• MODIFYING AN EXISTING INSTRUMENT when the available
instruments do not yield the exact data that will answer the research
problem.
• RESEARCHER MAKES HIS OWN INSTRUMENT that corresponds to
the variable and scope of his current study
COMMON SCALES USED IN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• LIKERT SCALE
• This is the most common scale used in quantitative research.
• A type of scale used in survey research that measures respondents’ attitudes towards a
certain subject.
•  Likert scale questions are single-choice, closed-ended questions, and the primary
benefit of using a Likert scale is that it provides more granular information on people’s
attitudes towards a subject than a simple yes/no question type.
• By using a Likert scale, researchers can assess varying levels of agreement, importance,
quality, and other factors.
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL.

• In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents. This scale
seems to be more advantageous since it is more flexible and easy to construct.
VALIDITY

• Another important consideration in constructing a research instrument is how to establish

its validity and reliability.
• A research instrument is considered VALID IF IT MEASURES WHAT IT
SUPPOSED TO MEASURE => accuracy
• When measuring oral communication proficiency level of students, speech performance
using rubric or rating scale is more valid than students are given multiple choice tests.
• Validity also has several types: face, content, construct, concurrent, and predictive
validity.
 TYPES OF VALIDITY OF INSTRUMENT

FACE VALIDITY
• It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the instruments as it
“appear.” Just by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid.
• least scientific method of validity

CONTENT VALIDITY
• An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of the study, whether or not the
measure used in the research covers all of the content in the underlying construct (the thing you are
trying to measure).
• It is done by checking the statements or questions if this elicits the needed information. Experts in the
field of interest can also provide specific elements that should be measured by the instrument.
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
• It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical construct of the
study. It is concerning if a specific measure relates to other measures. For attaining
construct validity,
• it’s imperative to make sure that the indicators you use are cautiously developed on the
relevant existing knowledge. So, the questionnaire should include only the relevant questions
that can effectively gauge the popular indicators of that certain construct
CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY

• Criterion-related validity (also called instrumental validity) is a measure of the quality of

your measurement methods.  The accuracy of a measure is demonstrated by
comparing it with a measure that is already known to be valid.
• In other words – if your measure has a high correlation with other measures that are
known to be valid because of previous research.
a. CONCURRENT VALIDITY
• When the instrument can predict results similar to those similar tests already
validated, it has concurrent validity.

b. PREDICTIVE VALIDITY.
• When the instrument is able to produce results similar to those similar tests that will
be employed in the future, it has predictive validity.
RELIABILITY
• Reliability refers to the consistency of the measures or results of the
instrument => precision
• TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY. It is achieved by giving the same test to the same
group of respondents twice. The consistency of the two scores will be checked.
• EQUIVALENT FORMS RELIABILITY. (Parallel forms reliability) It is established by
administering two identical tests except for wordings to the same group of respondens.
• It relates to a measure that is obtained by conducting assessment of the same
phenomena with the participation of the same sample group via more than one
assessment method.
• INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY. It determines how well the items
measure the same construct. It is reasonable that when a respondent gets a high score in
one item, he will also get one in similar items.
• Internal consistency reliability reflects the extent to which customers are consistent in
their ratings over different questions. This type of reliability is used when examining a
composite score that is made up of several questions
• There are three ways to measure the internal consistency; through the Split-half
Coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, and Kuder-Richardson formula.
PT PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
1 Literature Review Catalogue
2 Research Design
3 Create an Essay (with Intro, Body and Conclusion)
Which do you think is the best sampling procedure? Defend your answer
Handwritten – 1 whole sheet of paper
DEADLINE: FRIDAY, DECEMBER 9, 2022
4 Data Collection Poem
Select one data collection process and create a poem focusing on its uses or importance
Handwritten – 1 whole sheet of paper
DEADLINE: MONDAY, DECEMBER 12, 2022

5 Write your Chapter 3

DEADLINE: MONDAY, JANUARY 9, 2023
Printed (I will send the format in your GC)
WHAT IF BUMALIK ANG GREAT TASTE WHIE MO?