Submit yourself to the

No. 1
State of Mind!
Curriculum
Charliemagne L. Aceron
Development
LET Competencies
1. Apply approaches to curriculum development
2. Align curriculum components to instruction and assessment
3. Distinguish the roles of stakeholders in the delivery of the curriculum.
Topics to be Covered
A. Understanding Curriculum as Concept
B. Other Curriculum Conceptions
C. Three major types of Curriculum
D. Designs and Patterns of Subject-centered Design
E. Designs and Patterns of a Learner-centered Design
F. Foundations of Curriculum
G. Curriculum Development Phases/Processes
H. Approaches to Curriculum Development
I. Influential Models of Curriculum Development
J. Linking Curriculum with Instruction
K. Phases/Processes in Curriculum Development
L. Role of Technology in Delivering the Curriculum
M. The K12 Examined
N. Addressing Future Curricular Innovations
A. Understanding Curriculum as a Concept
1. Curriculum defined/described
• The learning experiences and intended outcomes formulated through
systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences, under the auspices
of the school for the learners continuous and wilful growth; the cumulative
tradition of organized knowledge (Tanner, D. and Tanner, L.).

• A plan for learning (Taba, H.); a course of study on a specific topic; includes all
of the learning experiences of the students as planned and directed by the
school to attain its educational goals (Tyler)

• Everything that goes on the school, including extra-curricular activities,

guidance and interpersonal relationships in the school (Oliva).
B. Other Curriculum Conceptions
1. Curriculum as Fact
- Focus on the process of socialization or the acquisition of particular knowledge,
skills, and values which the teacher transmits to prepare them for adult world.
- Combined tradition of organized knowledge that focus on the subject matter.
- Aims to cultivate the intellect.

2. Curriculum as a Practice
- focuses not simply on acquisition of knowledge but on how it is collectively
discovered and produced by teachers and learners.
- how does the school subjects and abilities match
3. Curriculum as a means to attain Self-actualization
- development of learners at the fullest extent by considering their needs,
interests, and abilities.

4. Curriculum as Cognitive process

- sharpen students cognitive processes and develop their intellects for studying
virtually anything.
- subject matter is used to develop skills in inferring, speculating, deducing and
analysing which are expected to continue even after content is forgotten.
- focus on the process rather than the social context.

5. Curriculum focused on Technology

- seeks to make learning systematic and efficient.
6. Curriculum as having Social Relevance
- Social reconstruction is needed to address conflicts.
- Learners need to have skills in living in a changing world.

Is very much linked to instruction, learning, and evaluation, in terms of the

curriculum being “what to teach” aspect of the teaching learning process;
instruction, the “how to teach” aspect, learning, the result of what is taught, and
evaluation, how well the “what” was acquired by the learners.

Comes in many different levels

1. Societal – public stakeholders participate in identifying goals, topics to be
studied, time to be spent on tuition.
2. Institutional – derived from the societal level, with modification from educators;
organized according to subjects; may also include standards, philosophies, etc.
 3. Instructional – refers to how teachers use the curriculum derived from the societal level,
modified in the institutional level. This involves the teachers instructional strategies; styles and
materials used.
4. Experiential – curriculum perceived and experienced by each student.

C. Three Major Types of Curriculum

1. Subject-Centered
- traced back when the 7 liberal arts comprised the curriculum.
- central task: mastery of the subject matter, the amount to be covered of which follows a set
of standards and well-organized context.
- step-by-step learning
- Textbook as primary instructional tool.
-Teacher as full authority
- Questions focus on the “What” rather than “Why” or “How”.
- Habits and skills taught as separate aspect
- No interrelation of subject areas: parts separated and distinct.
2. Experience/Learner-Centered
- focus on the learners’ interest and integration of content from
many subject fields.
- emphasis on all-around growth of learners
- Subject matters are based on learners needs/interest
- encourage meaningful/immediate use of learning.
- promotes integration of subject but with scope and sequence not
well-defined.
- habits and skills integrated in learning experiences.
- parts flow together as a whole.
 3. Society/Culture-Based
- Based on the needs of society and needs of culture.
- Problem-solving processes and skills on human and social relations.
- promotes social action and reconstruction.
- Integrates different subject matters and their relevance to students
and society.

D. Designs and Patterns of Subject-Centered Curr.

Separate/Single Subject – subjects independent of content and time.
Correlated Subjects – subjects in two or more areas are correlated.
(Example: vocabulary/spelling may be based on
science or social studies)
 Broad-Fields Curriculum – broadening and integration of several subjects on
longer time blocks; may integrate through a)
principles or themes b) historical integration of subjects.
Spiral Curriculum – students are not ready to learn certain concepts until
they reach the required level of development and
maturity and have the experiences. Topics are treated with a
corresponding degree of complexity across levels; deepening of
knowledge.
Mastery Learning Curriculum – offers students with ample time to master
all the objectives through remediation and
formative assessments without penalty.
Open Education Curriculum – students are free to discover important
knowledge; teachers as major curriculum
developers.
 Problem Solving Curriculum – learning-centered; students guided to
discover answers to problems to understand concepts
and generalizations to master the discipline.
Discipline design – this is related to subject design. The only difference they
have is that subject design is concerned of the cluster of
topics while the discipline design is more concerned of
the academic discipline. For example, students in history
should learn the same way historians learn. This is often used in
college.

Correlation design – this links different subjects to reduce fragmentation.

Subjects are related to each other but they are still
distinguished as different entities.
E. Designs and Patterns of Learner Centered Curr.
Activity-based – based on child’s special needs but there is no advance
planning; use problem solving method and cooperative planning.
Child-centered – “custom-made” activities for children and experiential rather
than rote learning; largely use motivation.
- influenced by John Dewey, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel.
Leaners is at the center of the educative process. They actively take part in the
environment and in their teachers as they learn (constructivists).

Social Process and Life-functions focused – focus around the major life
cultural activities of mankind; based on analysis of life activities; relates learners
and society. Structured around various aspects of problems and processes in
society.
 Process-Oriented – personal attributes and skills of personal learner in ever-
widening circles of self, others, and society. Emphasize
on skills and traits that will sense the learner for life.
Humanistic design – the key lead personalities in this design are Abraham
Maslow, and Carl Roger’s. In this model, the development of self is the ultimate
objective of learning. It stresses on the person.
Other Curriculum Design Structures
Problem-centered design – generally it draws on social problems, needs,
interest, and abilities of the learners. Various problems are given emphasis. In
this model, content cuts across subject boundaries and must be based on the
needs, concerns and abilities of the students.
 • Life-situations design – contents are organized in a way that students view
problems clearly. It uses the past and the present experiences of learners as a
means to analyze the basic areas of living
• Core design – problems are based on the most common human activities. The
central part includes the common needs, problems, concerns of the learners.

F. Foundations of Curriculum
Curriculum needs to be securely established in socio-cultural, philosophical,
and psychological bases for all around development.
Socio-cultural answers the Question: Why do we need a curriculum?
Psychological answers the Question: How will it be used in schools?
 1. Sociological and Cultural Foundations
- Society and culture matters a lot in the making of a curriculum,
whatever changes therein affects the curriculum.
These forces include:
1. Cultural Tradition – school stakeholders are part of the
community, this may be a huge stumbling- block.
2. Textbooks – determines to a large extent the curriculum, because
of its availability and easy bases for test construction.
3. Laws – affect the curriculum through funding, policies, and
programs.
4. Moral Values – reflected in the curriculum because of socio-
cultural basis.
 Research
Multicultural Concerns
Poverty may be a basis for improvement/changes.
Family changes
Technology

The school influences society through the development of learners among

the following:
1. Citizenship – includes the teaching of cultural heritage and development
of desire to protect and improve society. Democratic and
nationalistic efforts.
2. Intellectualism – intellectual development as precursor to national
economy.
 3. Vocational Preparation – development of group-oriented, inquiry-
focused, problem solving, and abstraction of
skills among learners.

2. Philosophical Foundations
- Philosophy gives direction to curriculum in terms of goals and objectives;
the schools underlying beliefs and values have impact on curriculum content and
choice of appropriate instructional strategies.
PHILOSOPHICAL BELEIFS
Philosophical Systems Fundamental Ides Curricular Implications
Metaphysics Study of what is beyond the Curriculum must go beyond
natural (What is real is true) content: What the students
can become
Philosophical Systems Fundamental Ides
Epistemology Truth about the nature of
knowledge
Logic Focus on logical and accurate
thought patterns
Axiology Values and ethics
Idealism (Plato) - Importance of mind and
spirit and of developing
them in the learner.
- Reliability is in the ideas
independent of sense and
experience
Curricular Implications
Curriculum should revolve
around the issues of teaching-
learning process.
The goal of all curricula must
be the development of the
ability of students to think
logically
Development of a sense of
right and wrong
Subject matter – or content
focused, believes that this is
essential to mental and oral
development.
 Philosophical Systems Fundamental Ides Curricular Implications
Realism (Aristotle) - Truth can be tested or Curriculum is subject-
proven. centered, organized from
- Knowledge is derived from simple to complex, and
sense experience stressing mastery of facts and
development of process and
objective skills.
Pragmatism (John Dewey, - The world is changing; a - Direct experience
Rousseau) man can know anything - Learner-centered
through experience. “learn - Problem-solving inquiry
by doing”
Perennialism (Robert Maynard - Human beings are rational - Subjects consist of
Hutchins) and their existence remains perennial basic education
throughout differing for men: history, language,
environments. math, logic, classical
literature.
Existentialism (Zoren - Reality is a matter of - Activities that stress of
Kierkegard) individual existence. individual differences.
- Choices and awareness of
consequence
 Philosophical Systems Fundamental Ides Curricular Implications
Essentialism (William Bagley) There are certain ideas that Emphasis on the 3R’s, history,
man should know for stability science, math, and language
Reconstructionism Societal reform needed Subjects deal with social and
towards experiencing the good cultural crises to prepare
life now and in the future. students to become an
analyser.

3. Historical Foundations
- reflects the educational focus prevalent during a particular period or event in
Philippine history.
Period Characteristics Curricular Focus
Pre Spanish - Practical training for the - Not defined nor written
basic needs of survival. - Prescriptive
(Tell me; Show me) - Training in Homes
 Period Characteristics
Spanish - Focused on the learning of
the Christian Doctrine
(Dictation and Memorization)
American - Education through
socialized recitation
Democracy as life - More student participation.
Commonwealth - Development of moral
character
- Personal discipline and civic - 6 yrs. elementary entrance
awareness.
- Vocational Efficiency
Curricular Focus
- Parochial schools
- Study of Doctrina,
arithmetic, music, arts, and
trades, vernacular was
medium of instruction.
- Reading, writing,
arithmetic, good manners
and right conduct.
- American and Philippine
history.
- English as medium of
instruction.
- Tagalog as another medium
of instruction
at age 7.
- Teaching of Filipino as a
subject
 Period Characteristics
Japanese - Focused on promoting East
Asia co – prosperity sphere
Centered on Love for Labour educational objective
Third Republic – Patterned after the provisions of the 1935 Constitution
New Society - Focused on the national
development goals;
(Try National Development) manpower training; high level
professions and self
actualization.
Fourth Republic Focused on promotion of
rights of all citizens to quality
education.
Curricular Focus
- Elementary education with
promotion of vocational
education
- New Filipino culture as
Orientals
- Termination of English as
medium of Instruction
- Bilingual Education Policy
- Development of moral
character; and self-
discipline.
- Strengthening of the
teaching of values
Other Discussions for Historical Development
• Curriculum is not an old field. Scholars argue that it begun in 1918 where Franklin
Bobbit published his book The Curriculum.
•  Franklin Bobbit (1878 – 1956) – bobbit presented curriculum as a science that
emphasizes on students’ need. Teaches students to adapt to adulthood.
• Werret Charters (1875 – 1952) – curriculum is also a science. The listing of
objectives with corresponding activities ensures the relevance of the content of the
subject matter.
• William Kilpatrick (1871 – 1965) – curricula are purposeful activities that are child-
centered. The purpose of curriculum is child development and growth. The Project
Method – introduced by Kilpatrick where the teacher and student plan activities.
• Harold Rugg (1886 – 1960) – it should develop the whole child. Curriculum should
provide outcomes. He emphasized social studies.
• Hollis Caswell – organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge
and social interest. Curriculum is a set of experiences.
• Ralph Tyler (1902 – 1994) – one of the hallmarks of the curriculum. Curriculum is a
science and an extension of the school’s philosophy. Curriculum is always related to
instruction. The curriculum aims to educate generalists not specialists.
4. Psychological Foundations
Learning is classified into:
Sensory-motor – understanding of the external world through sense
perception.
1. Cognitive – rational/mental/and intellectual development
Association Learning – acquisition and retention of facts and
information. Establishing relationships among ideas and
experiences.
Problem-solving – overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere
with the attainment of goal.
2. Affective (Appreciative) – involves acquisition of attitudes and interest
that will lift the feelings of individuals far from
the tangible elements of existence.
Aesthetic appreciative experiences – obtained in music, art, and literature
Intellectual appreciative exercises – all learning has emotional correlates
 1. THEORIES OF LEARNING
1. Stimulus-Response or Association Theory – for every stimulus there is a
corresponding response.
Connectionism is the theory under SR formulated by Edward Lee
Thorndike (Father of Instructional Technology). It assumes that human activities are
based on an association of stimulus and response.
Under it are the Three fundamental Laws of learning
1. Law of Readiness – preparedness to respond or act, allowing him
would be satisfying and preventing him would be
annoying.
2. Law of Exercise – constant repetition of a response strengthens its
connection to the stimulus, while disuse of response
weakens it.
3. Law of Effect – learning is strengthened if it results in satisfaction,
but it is weakened if it leads to vexation or annoyance.
 2. THEORY OF CONDITIONING
Based on the dog experiment of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, a Russian psychologist.

Principles under Classical Conditioning

Adhesive Principle – a response is attached to every principle
Excitation – a neutral stimulus gains the ability of eliciting a response
Extinction – also known as unlearning. Occurs when a conditioned response
is no longer elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Generalization – conditional response is also elicited by other
stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery – conditioned response which does not appear for
sometime but re-occurs without need of further
conditioning.
 Operant Conditioning is a theory based on the experiment of Burrhus Frederick
Skinner on a hungry rat. Rewards and Punishment. Skinner is a behaviourist that
published his famous book “Verbal Behavior” which received a critic from Noam
Chomsky (most cited author alive) who eventually published his famous Cognitivism.

Feedback Principle – states that an organisms responses maybe reinforced by

presentation or removal. Rewards and Punishments.

3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

- based on the study of Albert Bandura and Richard Wallace
- It was an experiment done to three children watching three models in
films, the first was rewarded, the second was punished, and nothing was
done to the third. The children chose the first, then the third, before the
punished one.
 Cognitive Field Theory – otherwise known as Field theory describes
how a person gains understanding of himself and his world in situation.
TYPES OF COGNITIVE FIELD THEORY
1. Insight Learning – the more intelligent the organism and the more capable he is
of gaining higher insight. (Based on his experiment of a
chimpanzee named Sultan)
2. Vector and Topological Theory – came from “vector” which means quantity that
has magnitude and direction and “topology” which means unaltered
by elastic deformations. The behaviour of an individual is a result of the
forces around him. This was advanced by Kurt Lewin.
3. Gestalt Learning – from the word gestalt which means a structure configuration or
pattern of different phenomena integrated to constitute a functional
unit. For learning to occur one has to realize consequences. “The
whole is greater than the sum of its parts”.
4. Instrumental Conceptualism – acquisition of learning is always a dynamic and
interactive process because the learner actively participates in the process of
knowledge acquisition. Learning is thinking. Advocated by Jerome Bruner.
 How is Learning Transferred?
Transfer of Learning occurs when a person’s learning in one situation
influences his learning in other situations.
Theories about Transfers of Learning
1. Mental Discipline – education is largely about rigorous training of the
mind. Exercises in grammar, logic, etc.
2. Apperception – is a process of relating new ideas or mental states to a
store of old ones (Trivia: If this is language learning, same
characteristics would fall under the Monitor Model Hypothesis of Krashen -
ANIMIA).
3. Identical Elements – advocated by connectionism. Transfer is facilitated
in a second situation to the extent that it contains
identical elements/factors which occurred in the earlier
situations.
 4. Generalization – introduced by Charles Judd. This is another term for relating
experiences in such a manner that what is gained at one point will rebound to
many spheres of actions in the individual.
5. Gestalt Theory of Transfer – advanced the idea of “transposition” or the
belief that when transfer of learning occurs it is in the form of generalizations,
concepts or insights which are developed in one learning situations and transferred
to another.
4. MOTIVATION
Derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to move
(Trivia: most English words come from Latin because of the literary dominance of Latin language
over English in the olden times, even Geoffrey Chaucer (father of English poetry) adapted his
famous “The Canterbury Tales” from Giovanni Bocaccio’s “
The Decameron – Ten Days of Story Telling)
 TYPES OF MOTIVATION
1. Intrinsic Motivation – internal stimulus of the individual to learn.
2. Extrinsic Motivation – based on the incentives which are artificial devices employed to
evoke attitude to conducive learning.
C. Curriculum Aims, Goals, and Objectives
A formal curriculum is embedded within a formal institution called schools, it is either operated
by a private or a government sector. The Philippine educational system is divided into three
educational levels: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary levels. Based on the Philippine Constitution of
1987, all schools shall aim to:
• Inculcate patriotism and nationalism
• Foster love of humanity
• Promote respect for human rights
• Appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country.
• Teach the rights and duties of citizenship
• Strengthen ethical and spiritual values
• Develop moral character and personal discipline
• Encourage critical and creative thinking
• Broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency.
Aims of Elementary Education (Education Act of 1982)
• In the elementary education, schools should aim:
• Provide knowledge and develop skills, attitudes, values essential to personal
development and necessary for living in and contributing to a developing and
changing society;
• Provide learning experiences which increase the child’s awareness of and
responsiveness to the changes in the society;
• Promote and intensify knowledge, identification with and love for the nation and
the people to which he belongs; and
• Promote work experiences which develop orientation to the world of work and
prepare the learner to engage in honest and gainful work.
Aims of Secondary Education
• In high school or secondary level, education curricula aims to:
• Continue to promote the objectives of elementary education; and
• Discover and enhance the different aptitudes and interests of students in order to
equip them with skills for productive endeavor and or to prepare them for tertiary
schooling.

Aims of Tertiary Education

• The different courses in tertiary education courses should aim to:
• Provide general education programs which will promote national identity, cultural
consciousness, moral integrity, and spiritual vigor;
• Train the nation’s manpower in the skills required for national development;
• Develop the professions that will provide leadership for the nation;
• Advance knowledge through research and apply new knowledge for applying the
quality of human life and respond effectively to changing society.
Based upon the mandate of the constitution, each school should therefore be guided by its
vision, mission, and goals. 
Vision – a clear concept of what the institution would like to become in the future. The
school’s vision can be very ambitious but that is the characteristic of a vision.
Example: “Commits to the exemplary Christian education for life and responsive to the
needs of the total person and the world.”
Mission – it spells out how it intends to carry out its vision.
Example: “To produce globally competitive lifelong learners.”

Goals – these are broad statements or intents to be accomplished.

Example: “Build a strong foundation of skills and concepts.”
 
Educational Objectives – this is from the simplified version of the goals. Benjamin Bloom
and Robert Mager defined educational objectives as:
Explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the
educative process, and
Intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learners.
Domains of Learning
Cognitive Domain
• Knowledge – recalling
• Comprehension – grasping the meaning of the material
• Application – using new and learned material in new and concrete situation.
• Analysis – breaking down material into parts.
• Synthesis – putting together parts to make a new whole.
• Evaluation – Pass on judgment about something based on a given criteria.
Affective Domain
• Receiving – willingness to pay attention to events
• Responding – active participation
• Valuing – the worth or value a student attaches to a particular phenomena
• Organization – bringing together different values and building a value system
• Characterization – developing a lifestyle from a value system.
Psychomotor Domain
• Perception – using senses to guide motor activities.
• Set – readiness to take part in an action
• Guided response – early stages in learning complex.
• Mechanism – responses being habitual.
• Complex overt response – skillful performance and with complex movement
patterns
• Adaptation – well development of skills that the ability to modify is very easy.
• Origination – creating new movement patterns to fit the situation.
G. Curriculum Development Phases/Processes
1. The Nature of Curriculum Development
- A process of development that creates educational experiences to
meet the expectations of planners.
- Its basic tasks: identify purpose (1); set goals and objectives (2);
assigns curriculum content (3); focus on critical needs of learners (4);
delivers the program (5); evaluates the curriculum (6); makes decisions
for the curriculum (7). SAFDEM
 2. Stakeholders in Curriculum Development
- includes individuals and groups who influence and make important
contributions to the curriculum.
Categories of Stakeholders
1. Community based – influences the curriculum at societal and institutional
levels. This includes parents, guardians of students, etc.
2. School based – either on the institutional, instructional, or experiential
levels. This includes school staff.
Roles of different stakeholders in curriculum development
1. Community-at-large – often dictates the purposes, goals, and content of
the school curricula.
2. Law makers/Government Officials – budget, legislations that affect
school.
 3. Governing/School Boards – authorize school expenditures for curriculum
development, make important decisions, and
oversee/manage school operations.
4. Parents/Guardians – support and participate in parent-school
organizations where priorities for the curriculum are often
set.
5. Publishers – support development of instructional materials based on the
curriculum developed.
6. Teachers – establish direction and implementation of the curricula. Helps
prepare the scope and sequence of the program
7. Learners – the primary stakeholders of the curriculum, whose needs and
abilities are the basis of the curriculum.
H. Approaches to Curriculum Development
1. Technical Approach – considered as traditional way of making a
curriculum; resorting to the ideas of non-teachers.
PROCEDURE
1. A committee of non-teaching staff develops or revises a curriculum and
decides what the intended learning outcomes should be.
2. Teachers implement the curriculum in the teaching situation.
3. observable evidence is gathered during instruction that will serve as basis
for potential changes.
2. Non-Technical Approach – relies on teachers as source of curriculum
knowledge. They do not have intended learning
outcomes because what the students are expected to learn is not
easily predicted.
 - teachers in the non-technical approach enact, rather than implement,
which means that the teachers are both involved in the development and fitting it
to specific contexts.
PROCEDURES
1. Planner-teacher identifies a general idea for study
2. teachers gives initial shared experience, assists students interactions
among themselves with the content and the teachers, and provide
additional inputs and closures
TYPES OF CURRICULUM
1. Recommended Curriculum – proposed by scholars.
2. Written Curriculum – appears in schools, districts, and etc.
3. Taught Curriculum – what teaching implements.
4. Supported curriculum – research, books.
 5. Assessed Curriculum – this is the tested and evaluated curriculum
6. Learned Curriculum – curriculum that is learned by the students.
7. Hidden Curriculum – or the unintended curriculum.
Other Approaches to Curriculum Development
• Behavioral Approach – based on behaviorist’s principles. It is anchored on a blueprint. In
the blueprint are the plans (goals, objectives, contents and activities). It is evaluated in
terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning.
• Managerial Approach – this approach became dominant in the 1950’s and 1960’s. the
principal is the curriculum leader and at the same time instructional leader who is
supposed to be the general manager.
• Systems Approach – related to systems theory. This means that every part of the
organizational structure will be examined and be checked with how are they related to
each other.
• Humanistic Approach – rooted on the progressive philosophy and child-centered
movement.
I. Influential Models of Curriculum Development
1. Hilda Taba’s inverted model of curriculum development

Procedures:
1. Diagnosing the needs – information from the community and its schools to view local
needs.
2. Formulating of specific objectives – concepts, attitude, habits, or skills to be reinforced.
3. Selecting the content – necessary topics carefully.
4. Organizing content – begins with simple topics and concepts that move to complex ones.
 5. Selecting and Organizing Activities which must be based on the
developmental level of learners
6. Evaluating – units and lessons should be evaluated and re-
evaluated.
2. Ralph Tyler’s Ends-Means Model, which follows these steps
1. Determining the school and teacher’s philosophies
2. Identifying Educational Purposes
3. Selecting and Organizing Content
4. Evaluation

Tyler suggests that all curriculum development phases must consider three
important elements: learners – their needs and wants, society – the learners will
interact with society, and subject matter – has to be organized.
 3. Nation and Macalister Model for Curriculum Design (2010)
STEPS IN CURRICULUM DESIGN
1. Environment Analysis – sometimes called “situation analysis” or
“constraints analysis”. Involves looking at the factors that will have a
strong effect on decisions about the goals of the course, what to include
and how to teach and assess it (Tessmer, 1990).
In some models of curriculum design, environment analysis is
included in the needs analysis.
2. Needs Analysis – examines what the learners know already and what
they need to know. It makes sure that the course will contain relevant and
useful things to learn.
Two types of Needs
1. Target Needs – what they need to do in a target situation.
2. Learning Needs – what the learner needs to do in order to learn.
The analysis of target needs can look at:
1. Necessities – What is necessary for the learner? These are the type of
needs determined by the demands of target situation.
2. Lacks – knowing what the learner knows already so that you would
know what among those necessities they lack.
3. Wants – what the learners want to learn.
3. Principles – the aim of this part of curriculum design is to decide how learning
can be encouraged. (There are 20 strands exclusive for lang. curr.)
4. Goals, Content and Sequencing – listing of items to teach in the order in which
they will be taught. We call this “units of
progression”
1. Definite Series – those that has fixed step-by-step coverage.
2. Topics that can be covered in any order.
According to Posner and Rudnitsky (1994), there are five principles that
we must consider for organizing units.
• World-related sequence – what relationships exist among people?
• Space – spatial relations will be the basis for sequence. Closest to farthest,
from bottom to top, or east to west.
• Time – the contents are arranged from the earliest to the more recent.
• Physical Attributes – physical characteristics of the phenomena. Such as: age,
shape, size, and brightness.
• Concept-related sequence – How are ideas logically relate to each
other?
• Class relations – group or things that share the same practices.
• Propositional relations – evidence is submitted ahead before the proposition.
• Inquiry-related sequence – based on the scientific method of
discovery.
• Learning-related sequence – based on the psychology of how people
learn.
• Empirical Pre-requisiteness – pre-requisite is required before learning the
next level.
• Familiarity – what is familiar should be taken up first before the unfamiliar.
• Difficulty – easy content is taken ahead than the difficult one.
• Interest – contents that spark interest are those that are novel.
 Skills, Sub-skills, and Strategies
- some curriculum designers use skills and sub-skills as their units of
progression especially in ESP – Teaching of English for Specific Purposes.
For example,
Topic: Speaking
Skills: Interactional Speaking and Transactional Speaking
Sub-skills: Interactional Speaking – monologue, dialogue, etc.
Sequencing the Content in a Course
1. Linear Development – one lesson depends on the learning of the `
previous lessons.
2. Modular Arrangement – lessons that can be done in any order.
5. Format and Presentation – choose the teaching learning techniques and design
the lesson plans.
- the format and presentation must take account of the environment in
which the course will be used. Go back to the needs analysis!
For example, (Focus on Language Curriculum)
Make sure that there is balance through roughly equal amount of time given to:
1. Meaning-focused input – learning from listening and speaking.
2. Meaning-focused output – learning through speaking and writing
3. Language-focused learning – involves a deliberate focus on language features such as
pronunciation, spelling, etc.
4. Fluency Development – making the best use of what is already known, it is practicing and
becoming more of what they already acquired.
6. Monitoring and Assessment – deciding on what to test and how to test it.
TYPES OF MONITORING and ASSESSMENT
1. Placement Assessment – teachers are assessed
at the beginning of the course to see what level of the course they
should be in.
2. Observation of Learning – while the course is
running, the activities that the learners do are carefully
monitored if it is likely to achieve the desired goals.
3. Short-term achievement assessment – in form
of weekly tests, keeping of achievement records to see if the
learners are achieving.
4. Diagnostic assessment – knowing the learners
strengths and weaknesses.
 5. Achievement Assessment – usually at the end of
the course, this examines the effectiveness of the course.
6. Proficiency Assessment – based on items drawn
from language as a whole rather than from the content of a
particular course.
7. Evaluation – decide on how to check if the course is successful and where it
needs to be improved.
J . Linking Curriculum with Instruction
- curriculum and instruction are related to each other since the basis of
instruction is curriculum
- Notice that the process of making a curriculum is the same with the process
of instruction its just that they differ in degree, extent, and focus.
- curriculum and instruction can be taken as separate but interrelated entities.
Meaning, if curricular functions are separate from instruction, the decision in one
entity affects another.
MODELS OF INSTRUCTION
1. Goal-oriented Instructional Model (PRODED-ERP)
Reteach?
Pre-assessment of Statement of
Instruction Evaluation Remediate?
learners needs Objectives
Move to next
2. Wiles and Bondi’s Model

- Assess
- judge - Review of
students’
success of Curriculum
ability
strategies - State
- Determine
- Make objective
relevance
planning - Organize
- Revise obj.
adjustments contents
if needed

- Select - Implement - Consider

assessment Instructional Methodology
devices. Strategies - Review
- Check - Make present
evidence of appropriate knowledge
student growth connection base
• Planning Phase – includes the decision making regarding the;
• Needs of the learners
• Achievable goals and objectives to meet the needs
• Selection of the content to be taught
• Motivation to carry out the goals
• Strategies most fit to carry out the goals
• Evaluation process to measure the learning outcomes
• Implementation Phase – means to put into action the different activities in
order to achieve the objectives through the subject matter.
• Evaluation Phase – the evaluation phase will answer the question if the
plans and implementation have been successfully achieved.
Learning as a Process in Curriculum
Learning is a change in behavior that is caused by experiences or self-activity. There are two principal
types of learning theories, these are: Behavioral Learning theories, and Cognitive Learning Theories.
Behavioral Learning Theories
• Classical Conditioning Theory – Ivan Pavlov
• Laws of Learning – Edward Thorndike
• Operant Conditioning – B.F. Skinner
• Behavioral Learning Theory – Albert Bandura
Cognitive Learning Theories
• Discovery Learning – Jerome Bruner
• Reception Learning – David Ausubel
• Events of Learning – Robert Gagne
• Motivation phase – learners are motivated to learn.
• Apprehending phase – paying attention if learning has to take place.
• Acquisition phase – learner transforms information into meaningful form.
• Retention phase – transfer from short-term to long-term memory.
• Recall phase – recall previous learned information
• Generalization phase – transfer of information to new situations.
• Feedback phase – this will serve as a reinforcer.
Some Ways of Doing Teaching and Learning
• Learning by trial and error – the stimulus-response theory of
learning.
• Learning by conditioning – operant and classical conditioning.
• Learning by insight – looking into oneself with deeper thinking.
• Learning by observation and imitation through modeling – the
assumption that one learns from someone.
Curriculum and Instruction
A curriculum is a structured set of desired outcomes that educators usually call goals or
objectives. Students are expected to learn what is in the curriculum. Curriculum developers
need to bring to the content selection the criteria of significance, validity, interest, learnability,
and feasibility.

• Significance – brings the content to the degree to which it contributes the basic ideas,
concepts, principles, and realizations.
• Validity – degree of authenticity of the content selected.
• Interest – degree to which the content either caters or fosters particular interests in the
students.
• Learnability – appropriateness of the content in the light of the particular students who
experience the curriculum.
• Feasibility – can the selected content be taught in the time allowed, considering the
resources, staff and particular community?
K. Phases/Processes in Curriculum Development
A process that involves situation analysis, goal setting and need identification, budget
determination, and decision making regarding implementation and evaluation of
details.
A. Situation Analysis
- points to the need to examine the nature of the situation, or learning context,
to justify the selection of objectives and learning objectives.
Macro-level situation
1. cultural and social changes
2. educational system requirements and challenges
3. the changing nature of the subject matter to be taught
4. potential contribution of teacher support systems
5. Flow of resources into the school
 Micro Level situation
1. Pupils: attitudes, abilities, and educational needs
2. Teachers: values, attitudes, and skills
3. School organizational climate and structure
4. Material resources: buildings, plant
5. Perceived and felt problems in existing curriculum
B. Curriculum Organization and Design
- involves the “form” design, pattern, or simply the arrangement of
elements the curriculum used.
- selection of content/subject matter/competencies/learning
activities.
 Selection of content of
- Answers the question “What knowledge is most worth”
- Criteria for selecting the content
Validity – whether content is authentic and can achieve stated
objective.
Significance – whether content is fundamental to the subject
in question; whether selected content allows for breadth and depth
of treatment.
Interest – whether content is easily learnable
Consistency with Social Realities – most useful orientation
Integration – close relationship all concepts, skills, and values
contained in the curriculum.
Utility – content helpful in real life
Scope – breadth of the curriculum at a given time; refers to the
range of important ideas and concepts included.
Continuity and Sequence – vertical organization of the curriculum;
recurrence and the repetition of content.
 Elements of curriculum content
1. Sequence – simple to complex, whole to part, chronological, concrete to
abstract, from part to whole, close to remote, etc.
Four Principles of Sequence
• Simple to complex learning
• Pre-requisite learning – fundamental things to be learned ahead.
• Whole to part learning – this is relevant to the gestalt. The
overview before the specific content. The meaning can be very
well understood if everything will be taken as a whole.
• Chronological learning – order of events are considered
2. Integration – horizontal or vertical relationship
3. Focus – determining which content items are important to cover
excessive number of facts.
C. Curriculum Implementation
- the instruction phase of the curriculum development process.
Includes knowing the:
1. Scope and complexity of curricular changes
2. How curricular content is disseminated
3. Professional Development
4. Identification of resources requirement
D. Curriculum Monitoring
 a periodic assessment and adjustment during the try out period
 it is like Formative Evaluation
 determines if the curriculum is still relevant and effective
 done by the module writers, curriculum experts or outside agencies
 Accreditation
- a voluntary process of submitting a curricular program to an external
accrediting body for review in any level of education: basic, tertiary or graduate
school to assure standard
- studies the statement of the educational intentions of the school and
affirms a standard of excellence
- its purposes are to foster excellence and improve programs
E. Curriculum Evaluation
- Process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for
judging decision alternatives.
- refers to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness, or value of a
curriculum.
- judgment of the curriculum
PROCESS AND PRODUCT ASSESSMENT
1. Process Evaluation – provide information about the extent to which plans
for curriculum implementation are carried; wise use of
resources.
2. Product Evaluation – gathering, interpreting, and appraising curricular
attainments, as often as necessary, to determine how the
curriculum meets the needs of the students it is intended to serve.
PROCEDURES FOR CURRICULUM EVALUATION
1. Focusing
2. Preparing
3. Implementing
4. Analyzing
5. Reporting
WHAT TO OBSERVE IN CURRICULUM EVALUATION
1. Consistency with objectives
2. Comprehensive scope
3. Sufficient Diagnostic Value
4. Validity
5. Unity of Evaluative content
6. Continuity
Other Notes for Curriculum Evaluation
Every curriculum must be evaluated. It refers to the formal determination of
quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process, and product of the
curriculum. The most prevalent used is Stufflebeam’s CIPP (Context, Input,
Product, and Process). In this model, the process is continuous and is very
important to curriculum managers.
The stufflebeam’s CIPP
• Context – environment of the curriculum
• Input – refers to the ingredients of the curriculum. (goals, strategies, and
learners)
• Process – means of how the curriculum has been implemented.
• Product – accomplishment of the curricular goals.
Refers to a systematic process of judging the value, effectiveness, and adequacy of a
curriculum: its process, product and setting which will lead to informed decision.
• School-Based Evaluation – is an approach to curriculum evaluation which places the
content, design, operation, and evaluation procedure in the hands of the school personnel.
• Accreditation – a voluntary process of submitting a curricular program to en external
accrediting body for review in any level of education.

Areas for Accreditation under Curriculum and Instruction

• Curriculum and Program of Studies
• Program of studies includes the clusters of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and
experiences that provide students with competencies in learning. A list of subjects arranged
in logical order compose the program of studies.
• Classroom Management – Teachers must follow certain guidelines in management for them
to be sure that the students still receive quality instruction.
• Instructional Processes or Methodologies – How to translate action into the written and
planned curriculum is a concern of instruction. How should the lesson be taught?
• Graduation Requirements – What are the conditions that mean the
successful accomplishment of the program of studies?
• Administrative Support for Effective Instruction
• A curriculum’s effective implementation rests upon the support of the
administration. A principal’s direct support for example matters a lot in
the success of a curriculum.
• Evaluation of Academic Performance of Students
• It is also necessary for the learning outcomes to be evaluated. After all,
this is the best measure of the success of the curriculum – the learning
outcomes of the students.
Criteria for Curriculum Assessment
 
Criteria for Curriculum Assessment Defined
• Criteria are set of standards to be followed in assessment. It is where the curriculum is tested.
 
Criteria for Goals and Objectives
• Goals and objectives are statements of curricular expectations. They are formulated for
students. Goals and objectives are stated for the following purpose:
• Have focus on curriculum and instruction which give direction where students need to go.
• To meet the requirements specified in the policies and standards of curriculum and instruction.
• To provide the students the best possible education and describe the students’ level of
performance
• To monitor the progress of students based on the goals set.
• To motivate students to learn and the teachers to be able to feel a sense of competence when
goals are attained.
Before goals and objectives be effective, they have to follow a certain
criteria:
• Content – what should the students learn?
• Behavior – What will they do to indicate they learned?
• Criterion – What level of performance should they do to master
behavior?
• Condition – Under what circumstance should they work in order to
master that behavior?
Example: at the end of the lesson, the students would be able to write an
essay with correct grammar.
Writing goals and objectives should also consider the following criteria:
• Syntactic Correctness – does it follow a logical arrangement?
• Compliance with legal requirements – does it comply with legal
requirements?
• Does it pass the stranger test – the objectives should use behavioral
statements for it to be measurable.
• Does the objective address both knowledge and behavior?
• Do they pass the “so-what?” test? – it is a test of validity.
• Are the objectives aligned? – is it aligned with the present level of
educational performance and students’ goals?
• Do they make common sense?
Criteria for Assessment of Instruction
• Supplantive Approach – the direct method. The teacher proceeds by
providing explicit directions to the learners.
• Generative Approach – the “constructivist approach”. In here the
teacher acts as facilitator.
F. Curriculum Improvement for Curriculum Change
1. Curriculum Improvement
- alteration of certain aspects of curriculum without changing the
fundamental curriculum elements.
Involves five levels of operation:
1. Substitution – new series in place of current series
2. Alteration – additional instructional time for a subject
3. Variation – adopting another school’s programs
4. Restructuring – organize teams of subject specialists
5. Value orientation – instructional routine patterns part of
computer-assisted instruction.
 2. Curriculum Change
- basic alteration in the structure and design of learning experiences based on new
conceptions, which may be on schools, districts, or national level.
Involves the following tasks
1. Identification of a particular need to change; based on evaluation results, or initiative from
concerned individuals or groups
2. Study of alternative and proposals for change
3. Selection of proposed change
4. Pilot-study design
5. Appraisal of data from pilot study, and the corresponding, necessary modification,
if any.
6. continuous study by concerned staff through adequate in-service activities and help of any
consultant.
7. Decision to adopt, adapt, or reject.
8. Integration to the school system.
J. The Role of Technology in Delivering the Curriculum
Instructional materials abide to the conventional process of delivering
instruction. In choosing it, Instructional Technology comes into play.

• Factors for Technology Selection

• Practicality – is the equipment already available? If not, what would be the cost
of acquiring the equipment?
• Appropriateness – is the medium suitable to the learner’s ability to
comprehend.
• Suitability – will the chosen media suit to the instructional event?
• Objective-matching – does the medium help in achieving the learning
objectives.
• Technology integration to learning is a breakthrough in teaching
learning process. The same with the evolution of technology in other
fields, it is also important to note the three current trends that carry
on the nature of education.
• Paradigm shift from subject-centered to student-centered.
• Education is the broadening of realization through cultivating the
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
• The use of information and communication technology.
THE K 12 EXAMINED
 Addressing Future
Curricular Innovations
Local and National Curricular Innovations
2002 Basic Education Curriculum
The National motto: Makabayan, Makatao, Makakalikasan, at Maka-Diyos.
Elements of BEC
Objectives – exposed in terms of competencies.
Content – delivered using a variety of media and resources.
Materials – highly encouraged in teaching.
Teaching-learning process – considers learners as active partners than objects of teaching.
Evaluation
 
Thematic Teaching – requires organization of themes around ideas. For example, the theme
is Philippine festivals, then the subject English, Social studies, and etc. use this theme as
their focal point.
 
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) – the integration of content learning with language
teaching.
Generic Competency Model - learners are enrolled in three to four linked or related courses
or subject areas. For example, in makabayan competencies may be clustered into personal
development, social competencies, work and special skills.
 
Third Elementary Education Program (TEEP)
- Flagship project of DepEd in response to the social reforms agenda initiatives.
- Improve learning achievement and access to quality education.

Secondary Education Improvement and Development Program (SEDIP)

- Improve the quality and relevance of secondary education in the provinces.
- Increase participation and completion of secondary education especially in remote areas.
- Decentralizing the process of education

The New Teacher Education Curriculum for BEEd and BSEd.

BEEd – for elementary
BSEd – for secondary
The Ladderized Curriculum for Bachelor of Technical Education (BTTE)
- Prepares tecahers in technical-vocational education (TVET).
- Includes professional education, and instructional technology component.

Instructional and Curricular Excellence in School Leadership and Management-DepEd

eXCELS
- Short course package of SEMEAO INNOTECH for elementary and secondary school
administrators.
- Based on the Asian School Heads competency framework.

Project Child (Computer Helping Instruction and Learning Development)

- A research based instructional delivery system that enables one to intensify the curriculum
with technology and hands on learning.
- Developed by Dr. Sally Butzin – Florida State University

Brain-Based Learning
- Brain is compared to a central switchboard.
- The Triune Brain theory
Principles regarding the brain-based theory
 
Orchestrated Immersion – learning environments are created to provide authentic learning
experiences.
Relaxed Alertness – eliminating fear while maintaining a highly challenging environment.
Active Processing – learners consolidate and internalize information by actually processing
information.