Chapter 1: Fundamental of Computer Design

Rung-Bin Lin

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Chapter 1. Fundamentals of Computer Design

Introduction
Performance Improvement due to
(1). Advances in the technology (2). Innovation in computer design

1945-1970: (1) and (2) made a major contribution to performance improvement 1970 ~ : 25% to 30% per year performance improvement for the mainframes and minicomputers. 1975~ : 35% per year performance improvement for microprocessors simply due to (1).

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Performance Growth for Micro-processors

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Changes in the Marketplaces Made a Successful Architecture

The virtual elimination of assembly language reduced the need for object code compatibility The creation of standardized, vendor-independent operating system, such as Unix and Linux, lowered the cost and risk Consequence of the changes
Enable the development of RISCs to focus on
Exploitation of instruction level parallelism Use of caches

Lead to 50% increase in performance per year

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The Effect of the Growth rate in Computer Performance

Significantly enhanced the capability available to computer users Lead to the dominance of microprocessor-based computers across the entire range of computer design. Workstations and PCs have emerged as major products. Servers replace minicomputers. Multiprocessors replace mainframe computers and super computers. The advance of IC technology Emergence of RSIC Renewal of CISC such as x86 (IA32) microprocessors.

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The Changing Face of Computing

1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s Large mainframes
Business data processing and scientific computing

Minicomputers
Time-sharing

Desktop computing(personal computing) Internet and Word Wide Web (servers) Embedded computing, mobile computing, and pervasive computing

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Tasks of a Computer Designer

Determine what attributes are important for a new machine, then design a machine to maximize performance while staying within cost constraints. Task aspects: Instruction set design, functional organization, logic design, and implementation. In the past, Computer Architecture often referred only to instruction set design. Other aspects of computer design were called implementation. In this book, Computer Architecture is intended to cover all three aspects of computer design: instruction set architecture, organization and hardware. Instruction set architecture refers to the actual programmable-visible instruction set. It serves as the boundary between the hardware and software.

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organization includes the high-level aspects of a computers design, such as the memory system, the bus structure, and the internal CPU. NEC VR5432 and NEC VR 4122 have the same instruction set architecture but with different organization. Hardware would include the detailed logic design and packaging technology of the machine. For example: different Pentium microprocessors running in different frequency have the same instruction set architecture and organization but with different hardware implementation Organization and hardware are two components of implementations.

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Functional Requirements (Fig. 1.4)

Application Area:
General purpose, scientific and server, commercial, embedded computing

Level of Software Compatibility

At programming language, object code or binary code compatibility

Operating System Requirements

Size of address space, memory management, protection

Standards
Floating point, I/O bus, operating systems, networks, programming languages

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Technology Trends
A successful instruction set architecture must be designed to survive changes in computer implementation technology. Trends in implementation technology: Integrated circuit logic technology:
Transistor density: 35% increase per year, quadruple in 4 years. Die size: 10%~20% increase per year Transistor count/per chip: 55% increase per year. Transistor speed: scales more slowly.

DRAM:
Density: 40%~60% increase per year recently. Cycle time : decrease 1/3 in 10 years.

Magnetic disk:
Density: 100% increase per year recently. 30% increase per year, double in 3 years, prior to 1990.

Network technology
Ethernet: 10M to 100M to 1G byte band width.

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Scaling of IC Technology
IC Process Technology 10um(1971) 0.18um(2001) IC Technology and Computer Performance Transistor performance Wire delay Power consumption

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Cost, Price and Their Trends

Cost reduction factors
Learning curve drives the cost down; manufacturing costs over time, i.e., yield improvement. High volume (i.e. mass production) Commodities are products sold by multiple vendors in large volumes and essentially identical, i.e., competition. Price of DRAM (fig. 1.5) Price of Pentium III (fig. 1.6)

Cost of an integrated circuit

Cost of die =f(die area) Computer designer affects die size both by what functions are included on the die and by the number of I/O pins.

Distribution of cost in a system (fig. 1.9, 1.10)

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Prices of DRAM

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Price of Pentium III

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Price for $1000 PC

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Measuring and Reporting Performance

X is n times faster than Y means
Execution time (Y ) Performanc e( X ) !n! Execution time( X ) Performanc e(Y )

The term system performance is used to refer to elapsed time on an unloaded system. CPU performance refers to user CPU time on an unloaded system. To evaluate a new system is to compare the execution time of her workload - the mixture of programs and operating system commands run on a machine.

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Choosing Programs to Evaluate Performance

Best case: Measure the execution time of a systems workload General case: five levels of programs are used:
Real programs: C compiler, Tex, Spice, etc. Modified (scripted) applications: A collection of real applications Kernels: small, key pieces from the real programs, ex., Livermore loops and Linpack. Toy Benchmarks: 10 to 100 lines of code and produce a result the user already knows, ex., puzzle, quicksort, Synthetic benchmarks: try to match the average frequency of operations and operands of a large set of programs, ex., Whetstone and Drystone.

Performance prediction accuracy:

Real programs is best, wile synthetic benchmarks is worst. and reporting performance results (fig. 1.9 &1.10)

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Benchmark Suites
SPEC (Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation)
www.spec.org

Benchmark types
Desktop benchmarks Server benchmarks Embedded benchmarks

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Desktop Benchmarks
SPEC Benchmarks
SPEC CPU2000 (SPEC95, SPEC92, SPEC89) (Fig. 1.12) Graphic benchmarks
SPECviewperf SPECapc

Windows OS benchmarks (Fig. 1.11)

Business Winstone CC Winstone Winbench

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Server Benchmarks
SPEC
File server benchmarks: SPECSFS
Measuring NFS performance

Web server benchmarks: SPECWeb

Simulate multiple clients requesting both static and dynamic pages.

TPC (Transaction-Processing Council)

TPC-A, TPC-C, TPC-H, TPC-R, TPC-W
Simulate a business-oriented transactions (queries) www.tpc.org

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Embedded Benchmarks
EDN Embedded Microprocessor Benchmark Consortium (EEMBC) (Fig. 1.13)
Automotive/industrial Consumer Networking Office automation Telecommunications

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Reporting Performance Results

Guiding Principle
The performance measurements should be reproducibility.

Needs to tell
Hardware configurations Software used

Is source code modification for benchmarks allowed?

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Comparing Performance
Computer A Computer B Computer C P1 (secs) 1 10 20 P2 (secs) 1000 100 20 Total time 1001 110 40

Total execution time: A consistent summary measure Another metrics

Average execution time (arithmetic mean) Harmonic mean Weighted execution time: Weight i v Timei Geometric mean: n
n

xecution ti e ratio i
i !1

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Quantitative Principles of Computer Design

Make the common case fast: A fundamental law, called Amdahls Law, can be used to quantify this principle. Amdahls Law
the performance improvement to be gained from using some faster mode of execution is limited by the fraction of the time the faster mode can be used. Amdahls Law defines speedup as

erfor anc e with enhance ent Speedup ! erfor anc e without enhance ent 1 Execution timeold ! ! Fraction enhanced Execution time new 1   Fraction enhanced
Speedup enhanced
Example on pages 41 and 42

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CPU Performance Equation

CPU time ! CPU clock cycles for a program v clock cycle time ! I v I v lock cycle ti e Instructio ns lock cycles Seconds ! v v Pr ogra Instructio n lock cycle

Dependency
Clock cycle time - Hardware technology and organization CPI - Organization and instruction set architecture Instruction count - Instruction set architecture and compiler
n PIi v lock cycle time PU time ! Sometimes i !1 n and overall IC i PI ! PIi v Instruction count i !1

Example on page 44.

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Measuring the Components of CPU Performance

Clock cycle time: Timing simulator or timing verifiers IC(instruction count)
Direct measurement from running the applications on hardware Instruction set simulator - slow but accurate Instrumentation code approach: the binary program is modified by inserting some extra code into every basic block. Fast but need instruction set translation if simulated machine differs from simulating machine.

CPI: very difficult to measure

CPI = Pipeline CPI + Memory system CPI
Basic block Label:xxx Branch *** Branch *** Branch *** Label: xxx Label: xxx

Branch *** Label: xxx

Use the CPU performance equations to compute performance

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Principle of Locality
Application of Amdahls Law
A program spends 90% of execution time in on 10% of the code. Temporal locality: Recently accessed items are likely to be accessed in the near future. Spatial locality: Items whose addresses are near one another tend to be referenced close together in time.

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Put it All Together

Performance and Price-Performance
Desktop computers Server computers Embedded processors

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Price and Performance of Desktops (1)

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Price and Performance of Desktops (2)

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Price and Performance of Servers (1)

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Price and Performance of Servers (2)

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Price&Performance of Embedded Processors (1)

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Price&Performance of Embedded Processors (2)

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Price&Performance of Embedded Processors (3)