CELL DIVISION

General Biology 1: Week 3b

Cell Division
• —involves the distribution of identical genetic
material or DNA to two daughter cells.
• What is most remarkable is the fidelity with
which the DNA is passed along, without dilution
or error, from one generation to the next.
• Cell Division functions in reproduction, growth,
and repair.
Anatomy of
Chromosome
STAGES OF MITOSIS
Mitosis (apparent division)- is nuclear division.
the process by which the nucleus divides to
produce two new nuclei.
Mitosis results in two daughter cells that are
genetically identical to each other and to the
parental cell from which they came
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
STAGES OF MITOSIS

PROPHASE
Is the preparatory stage
Centrioles move toward
opposite sides of the
nucleus
STAGES OF MITOSIS

PROPHASE
The chromatin fibers become more
tightly coiled, condensing into
discrete chromosomes observable
with a light microscope.
The nucleoli disappear.
Each duplicated chromosome
appears as two identical sister
chromatids joined at their
centromeres and, in some species, all
along their arms by cohesins (sister
chromatid cohesion).
STAGES OF MITOSIS

PROPHASE
The mitotic spindle (named for its
shape) begins to form . It is composed
of the centrosomes and the
microtubules that extend from them.
The radial arrays of shorter
microtubules that extend from the
centrosomes are called asters
(“stars”).
The centrosomes move away from
each other, propelled partly by the
lengthening microtubules between
 STAGES OF MITOSIS

PROMETAPHASE
The transition between prophase
and metaphase.
The nuclear envelope fragments.
The microtubules extending from
each centrosome can now invade
the nuclear area
The chromosomes have become
even more condensed.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS

PROMETAPHASE
Each of the two chromatids of each
chromosome now has a kinetochore, a
specialized protein structure at the
centromere.
Some of the microtubules attach to the
kinetochores, becoming “kinetochore
microtubules,” which jerk the
chromosomes back and forth.
Nonkinetochore microtubules interact
with those from the opposite pole of the
spindle.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS

METAPHASE
Chromosomes become
arranged so that their
centromeres become aligned in
one place, halfway between
two spindle poles.
The centrosomes are now at
opposite poles of the cell.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS

METAPHASE
The centrosomes are now at opposite
poles of the cell.
The chromosomes convene at the
metaphase plate, a plane that is
equidistant between the spindle’s two
poles. The chromosomes’ centromeres
lie at the metaphase plate.
For each chromosome, the kinetochores
of the sister chromatids are attached to
kinetochore microtubules coming from
opposite poles.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS

ANAPHASE
Initiated by the separation
of sister chromatids at their
junction point at the
centromere.
The daughter chromosomes
then move toward the
poles.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS

ANAPHASE
Shortest stage of mitosis, often lasting only a
few minutes.
Anaphase begins when the cohesion proteins
are cleaved
The two liberated daughter chromosomes
begin moving toward opposite ends of the cell
as their kinetochore microtubules shorten
The cell elongates as the non-kinetochore
microtubules lengthen
By the end of anaphase, the two ends of the
cell have equivalent—and complete—
collections of chromosomes.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS

TELOPHASE
The chromosome that have
reached their respective poles
decondense and lose their
individuality.
The individual chromosomes
can no longer be seen, and
each set of chromatin material
tends to collect at each of the
two poles.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS

TELOPHASE
Two daughter nuclei form in the
cell. Nuclear envelopes arise from
the fragments of the parent cell’s
nuclear envelope and other
portions of the endomembrane
system.
Nucleoli reappear.
The chromosomes become less
condensed.
 STAGES OF MITOSIS

TELOPHASE
Any remaining spindle
microtubules are
depolymerized.
Mitosis, the division of one
nucleus into two
genetically identical
nuclei, is now complete.
 CYTOKINESIS
The two nuclei are
compartmentalized into separate
daughter cells and complete
mitotic cell division process. In
animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by
the formation of a constriction in
the middle of the cell until two
daughter cells are formed. The
constriction is often called
cleavage, or cell furrow.
 MEIOSIS
Reduces the amount of genetic information.
While mitosis in diploid cells produces
daughter cells with a full diploid
complement, meiosis produces haploid
gametes or spores with only one set of
chromosomes.
During sexual reproduction, gametes
combine in fertilization to reconstitute the
diploid complement found in parental cells.
The process involves two successive divisions
of a diploid nucleus.
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

PROPHASE 1:
• Leptonema- replicated chromosomes have coiled and
are already visible. The number of chromosomes
present is the same as the number in the diploid cell.
• Zygonema- Homologue chromosomes begin to pair and
twist around each other in a highly specific manner.
The pairing is called synapsis. And because the pair
consists of four chromatids it is referred to as bivalent
tetrad.
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

PROPHASE 1:
• Pachynema-Chromosomes become much shorter and thicker. A
form of physical exchange between homologues takes place at
specific regions. The process of physical exchange of a
chromosome region is called crossing-over. Through the
mechanism of crossing-over, the parts of the homologous
chromosomes are recombined (genetic recombination).
• Diplonema—The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate
from each other. It is at this point where crossing-over is shown
to have taken place. The area of contact between two non-sister
chromatids, called chiasma, become evident.
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

PROPHASE 1:
•Diakinesis- The four chromatids of each
tetrad are even more condensed and the
chiasma often terminalize or move down the
chromatids to the ends. This delays the
separation of homologous chromosomes.
•In addition, the nucleoli disappear, and the
nuclear membrane begins to break down.
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

METAPHASE 1:
•The spindle apparatus is completely
formed, and the microtubules are
attached to the centromere regions of the
homologues. The synapsed tetrads are
found aligned at the metaphase plate (the
equatorial plane of the cell) instead of
only replicated chromosomes.
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

TELOPHASE 1:
•The dyads complete their migration to the
poles. New nuclear membranes may form.
In most species, cytokinesis follows,
producing two daughter cells. Each has a
nucleus containing only one set of
chromosomes (haploid level) in a
replicated form.
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION
 SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

•The dyads complete their migration to the

poles. New nuclear membranes may form.
In most species, cytokinesis follows,
producing two daughter cells. Each has a
nucleus containing only one set of
chromosomes (haploid level) in a
replicated form.
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

PROPHASE II

•The dyads contract.

FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

METAPHASE II

•The centromeres are directed

to the equatorial plate and
then divide.
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

ANAPHASE II

•The sister chromatids (monads)

move away from each other and
migrate to the opposite poles of
the spindle fiber.
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

TELOPHASE II

•The monads are at the poles,

forming two groups of chromosomes.
A nuclear membrane forms around
each set of chromosomes and
cytokinesis follows. The
chromosomes uncoil and extend.