Chemistry, The Central Science, 10th edition

Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 The Nuclear Atom
• Rutherford postulated a very small,
dense nucleus with the electrons
around the outside of the atom.
• Most of the volume of the atom is empty
space.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Other Subatomic Particles

• Protons were discovered by Rutherford

in 1919.
• Neutrons were discovered by James
Chadwick in 1932.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 The Modern View of Atomic Structure
• The atom consists of positive, negative, and neutral entities
(protons, electrons and neutrons).

• Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of the atom,

which is small. Most of the mass of the atom is due to the
nucleus.

• Electrons are located outside of the nucleus. Most of the

volume of the atom is due to electrons.

• The quantity 1.602 x 10–19 C is called the electronic charge.

The charge on an electron is –1.602 x 10–19 C; the charge on
a proton is +1.602 x 10–19 C; neutrons are uncharged.

• Atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons Atoms,

Molecules,
thus they have no net electrical charge. and Ions
 The Modern View of Atomic Structure
• Masses are so small (the mass of the heaviest known atom,
for example, is on the order of 4 x 10-22 g). that we define the
atomic mass unit, amu.

• 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10–24 g.

• The mass of a proton is 1.0073 amu, a neutron is 1.0087

amu, and an electron is 5.486 x 10–4 amu.

• The angstrom is a convenient non SI unit of length used to

denote atomic dimensions.

• Since most atoms have radii around 1 x 10–10 m, Atoms,

we define 1 Å = 1 x 10–10 m. Molecules,
and Ions
 Subatomic Particles
• Protons and electrons are the only particles that
have a charge.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
mass.
• The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Symbols of Elements

Elements are symbolized by one or two

letters.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Number

All atoms of the same element have the same

number of protons:
The atomic number (Z)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Mass

The mass of an atom in atomic mass units

(amu) is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the atom.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Isotopes:
• Atoms of the same element with different masses.
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.

11 12 13 14
6 C 6 C 6 C 6 C

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Isotopes of Hydrogen

Protons 1 1 1
Atoms,
Neutrons 0 1 2 Molecules,
and Ions
 Exercise
1- How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in (a)
an atom of 197Au; (b) an atom of strontium-90; (c) a
138
Ba atom; (d) an atom of phosphorus-31?

2- Magnesium has three isotopes, with mass numbers

24, 25, and 26. (a) write the complete chemical
symbol (superscript and subscript). (b) how many
neutrons are in an atom of each isotope?

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Exercise
1- How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in (a) an atom of 197Au; (b)
an atom of strontium-90; (c) a 138Ba atom; (d) an atom of phosphorus-31?

P e N 197-79= 118

197
Au 79 79 118

90
Sr 38 38 52

138
Ba 56 56 82
Atoms,
31
P 15 15 16 Molecules,
and Ions
• 2- Magnesium has three isotopes, with mass numbers
24, 25, and 26. (a) write the complete chemical
symbol (superscript and subscript). (b) how many
neutrons are in an atom of each isotope?

24 25 26
Mg Mg Mg
12 12 12

N= 12 13 14
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
The Atomic Mass Scale

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2.4 Atomic Weights

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 exercise

1- Naturally occuring chlorine is 75.78% 35Cl, which has an atomic

mass of 34.969 amu, and 24.22% 37Cl, which has an atomic
mass of 36.966 amu. Calculate the average atomic mass (that
is the atomic weight) of chlorine.

2- three isotopes of silicon occur in nature: 28Si (92.23%), which

has an atomic mass of 27.97693 amu; 29Si (4.68%), which has
an atomic mass of 28.97649 amu; and 30Si (3.09%) which has
an atomic mass of 29.97377 amu. Calculate the atomic weight
of silicon.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 exercise
1- Naturally occuring chlorine is 75.78% 35Cl, which has an atomic
mass of 34.969 amu, and 24.22% 37Cl, which has an atomic
mass of 36.966 amu. Calculate the average atomic mass (that
is the atomic weight) of chlorine.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 exercise
2- three isotopes of silicon occur in nature: 28Si (92.23%), which has an
atomic mass of 27.97693 amu; 29Si (4.68%), which has an atomic mass
of 28.97649 amu; and 30Si (3.09%) which has an atomic mass of
29.97377 amu. Calculate the atomic weight of silicon.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 The Mass Spectrometer.
• •A mass spectrometer is an instrument that allows for
direct and accurate determination of atomic (and
molecular) weights.
• The sample is charged as soon as it enters the
spectrometer.
• The charged sample is accelerated using an applied
voltage.
• The ions are then passed into an evacuated tube and
through a magnetic field.
• The magnetic field causes the ions to be deflected by
different amounts depending on their mass.
• The ions are then detected.
• A graph of signal intensity vs. mass of the ion is called
a mass spectrum. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Mass

Atoms,
Atomic and molecular masses can be measured Molecules,
and Ions
with great accuracy with a mass spectrometer
Mass spectrum

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table:

• A systematic
catalog of
elements.
• Elements are
arranged in
order of atomic
number.

• Several numbering conventions are used (i.e., groups

may be numbered from 1 to 18, or from 1A to 8A and Atoms,
1B to 8B). Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodicity

When one looks at the chemical properties of

elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
reactivities.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table
• The rows on the
periodic chart are
periods.
• Columns are groups.
• Elements in the same
group have similar
chemical properties.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Groups

These five groups are known by their names.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table

Nonmetals are on the right side of the

periodic table (with the exception of H). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table

Metalloids border the stair-step line (with

the exception of Al and Po). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table

Metals are on the left side of the chart. Atoms,

Molecules,
and Ions
 Exercise
1- which two of the following elements would
you expect to show the greatest similarity in
chemical and physical properties: B, Ca, F,
He, Mg, P?

2- Locate Na (sodium) and Br (bromine) on the

periodic table. Give the atomic number of
each, and label each a metal, metalloid, or
nonmetal.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Molecules and Molecular Compounds
A molecule consists of two or more atoms bound tightly together.

Molecules and Chemical Formulas

• Each molecule has a chemical formula.
• The chemical formula indicates
1. which atoms are found in the molecule, and
2. in what proportion they are found.

A molecule made up of two atoms is called a diatomic molecule.

• Different forms of an element, which have different chemical formulas
(e.g. O2, O3) are known as allotropes. Allotropes differ in their chemical
and physical properties.

Compounds composed of molecules are molecular compounds.

• These contain at least two types of atoms.
• Most molecular substances contain only nonmetals.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chemical Formulas
The subscript to the right
of the symbol of an
element tells the number
of atoms of that element
in one molecule of the
compound.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds
are composed of
molecules and almost
always contain only
nonmetals.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Diatomic Molecules

These seven elements occur naturally as

molecules containing two atoms.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Types of Formulas
• Empirical formulas give only the relative number of atoms
of each type in a molecule.
- It give the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms of each
element in a compound.
• Examples: H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, HO, CH2.

• Molecular formulas give the actual numbers and types of

atoms in a molecule.
• Examples: H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, H2O2, O2, O3, and C2H4.

• The structural formula gives the connectivity between

individual atoms in the molecule.
• The structural formula may or may not be used to show the
three-dimensional shape of the molecule. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Types of Formulas

• Structural formulas show the

order in which atoms are
bonded.
• Perspective drawings also
show the three-dimensional
array of atoms in a
compound.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Picturing Molecules/ structural formula
Molecules occupy three-dimensional space.
• However, we often represent them in two dimensions.

The structural formula gives the connectivity between individual atoms

in the molecule.
• The structural formula may or may not be used to show the three-
dimensional shape of the molecule.
• If the structural formula does show the shape of the molecule then
either a perspective drawing, a ball-and-stick model, or a space-
filling model is used.

• Perspective drawings use dashed lines and wedges to represent

bonds receding and emerging from the plane of the paper.

• Ball-and-stick models show atoms as contracted spheres and the

bonds as sticks. The angles in the ball-and-stick model are accurate.

• Space-filling models give an accurate representation of the 3-D Atoms,

shape of the molecule. Molecules,
and Ions
 Exercises
1- Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules:
• (a) glucose, a substance also known as either blood sugar or dextrose, whose
molecular formula is C6H12O6.
CH2O
• (b) nitrous oxide, a substance used as anesthetic and commonly called laughing
gas, whose molecular formula is N2O
N2O

2- Give the empirical formula for the substance called diborane, whose molecular
formula is B2H6?
BH3
3- The structural formula for the substance ethane is shown
H H
H–C–C–H
H H
What is the molecular formula for ethane? What is the empirical formula? Which kind
of molecular model would most clearly show the angles between atoms?
C2H6 molecular Formula
CH3 Empirical formula
Ball an d stick will show the bond angles in the molecule Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Ions

• When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions.

 Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left side of the
periodic chart.
 Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right side of the
periodic chart.
• In general, metal atoms tend to lose electrons and nonmetal atoms
tend to gain electrons.
• polyatomic ions such as SO42– (sulfate ion) and NO3–(nitrate ion) Atoms,
consist of atoms joined as in a molecule, but they have a net positive
Molecules,
or negative charge. Examples : NH4+ and H3O+ and Ions
 exercise
1- Give the chemical symbol, including mass number,
for each of the following ions
a) The ion with 22 protons, 26 neutrons, and 19
electrons.
b) the ion of sulfur that has 16 neutrons and 18
electrons.

2- How many protons and electrons does the Se2- ion

possess? Atoms,
Molecules,
Se2- +34 protons -36 electrons and Ions
 Na +11 protons -11 electrons 12 neutrons

Na1+ +11 protons -10 electrons 12 neutrons

Ti +22 protons -22 electrons 26 Neutrons

Ti3+ +22 protons -19 electrons 26 Neutrons

S? +16 protons -18 electrons

Atoms,
Molecules,
S2- and Ions
Na 11 ( atomic number)
23 ( mass number = 11p + 12n)
11 electrons

Na+ 11 ( atomic number)

23 (mass number = 11p + 12n)
10 electrons

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Predicting Ionic Charges
• An atom or molecule can lose more than one
electron.
• Many atoms gain or lose enough electrons to have
the same number of electrons as the nearest noble
gas (group 8A).
• The number of electrons an atom loses is related
to its position on the periodic table.

Exercise
• Predict the charge expected for the most stable
ion of (a) barium, (b) Aluminum, (c) Fluorine, and Atoms,
(d) Oxygen. Molecules,
and Ions
 8 electrons
8 electrons
8 electrons

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Predicting Ionic Charges

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Ionic Bonds
Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally
formed between metals and nonmetals.
Molecular compounds are generally composed of
nonmetals only, e.g. H2O.

Note: only empirical formula can be written for Atoms,

Molecules,
most ionic compounds. and Ions
 Exercise
1- which of the following compounds would you
expect to be ionic N2O, Na2O, CaCl2, SF4?

2- which of the following compounds are

molecular: CBr4, FeS, P4O6, PbF2?
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Writing Formulas

• Because compounds are electrically neutral,

one can determine the formula of a
compound this way:
 The charge on the cation becomes the subscript
on the anion.
 The charge on the anion becomes the subscript
on the cation.
 If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-
number ratio, divide them by the greatest common
Atoms,
factor. Molecules,
and Ions
 exercise
What are the empirical formulas of
compounds formed by:
a) Al3+ and Cl- ions,
b) Al3+ and O2- ions,
c) Mg2+ and NO3- ions.
d) Na+ and PO43- ions
e) Zn2+ and SO42- ions
f) Fe2+ and CO32- ions
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Naming Inorganic Compounds
- Chemical nomenclature is the naming of
substances.
• Common names are traditional names for
substances (e.g., water, ammonia).
• Systematic names are based on a systematic
set of rules.
• Chemical compounds are usually divided into:
1- Organic compounds (those containing C,
usually in combination with H, O, N, or S).
2- Inorganic compounds (all other compounds). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Names and Formulas of Ionic
Compounds
• 1. Positive Ions (Cations)
I- Cations formed from a metal have the same name as the metal.
Example: Na+ = sodium ion.
Ions formed from a single atom are called monoatomic ions.

II- Many transition metals exhibit variable charge.

If the metal can form more than one cation, then the charge is
indicated in parentheses in the name.
Examples: Cu+ = copper(I) ion; Cu2+ = copper(II) ion.

An alternative nomenclature method uses the endings -ous and -ic to

represent the lower and higher charged ions, respectively.
Examples: Cu+ = cuprous ion; Cu2+ = cupric ion.

III- Cations formed from nonmetals end in -ium.

• Examples: NH4+ = ammonium ion; H3O+ = hydronium ion. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Inorganic compounds

Ionic compounds acids

cations anions

Molecular compounds

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 H hydrogen
H+ hydrogen ion
H- hydride ion

NH3 ---- ammonia

NH4+ ----- ammonium ion

H3O+ ------ Hydronium ion

Atoms,
Molecules,
H2O ------- Water and Ions
Common Cations

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 2. Negative Ions (Anions)
I- Monatomic anions (with only one atom) use the ending -ide.
Example: Cl– is the chloride ion.
Some polyatomic anions also use the -ide ending:
Examples: hydroxide ion (OH-), cyanide ion (CN-), and peroxide ion (O22-).
Exercise: what is the name of the following :
H-: O2- N3-

II- Polyatomic anions (with many atoms) containing oxygen are called oxyanions.
Their names end in -ate or -ite. (The one with more oxygen is called -ate.)
Examples: NO3– is nitrate; NO2– is nitrite.
• Polyatomic anions containing oxygen with more than two members in the series are named
as follows (in order of decreasing oxygen):
per-….-ate example: ClO4– perchlorate ion
-ate ClO3– chlorate ion
-ite ClO2– chlorite ion
hypo-….-ite ClO– hypochlorite ion

III- Polyatomic anions containing oxygen with additional hydrogens are named by adding
hydrogen or bi- (one H), dihydrogen (two H) etc., to the name as follows:
CO32– is the carbonate anion.
HCO3– is the hydrogen carbonate (or bicarbonate) anion. Atoms,
PO43– is the phosphate ion. Molecules,
H2PO4– is the dihydrogen phosphate anion. and Ions
 Examples
• Br-,(bromide ion ) F-,(Fluoride ion ) I- ,(iodide ion) N3-,(Nitride
ion ) O2-,(Oxide ion) S2-,(sulfide ion) , H-, (hydride ion)
CN-, OH- , O22-
Cyanide ion , Hydroxide ion , peroxide ion

SO32-: Sulfite ion SO42-: Sulfate ion

NO2-: Nitrite ion NO3-: Nitrate ion
PO33-: Phosphite ion PO43-: phosphate ion
CO32-: carbonate ion
BrO4- Perbromate ion IO4- Periodate ion
BrO3- Bromate ion IO3- iodate ion
BrO2- Bromite ion IO2- iodite ion Atoms,
Hypobromite ion Hypoiodite ion Molecules,
BrO- IO- and Ions
 examples
• SO32-
• HSO -
Sulfite ion
3
Hydrogen sulfite ion
• PO33- Bisulfite ion
• HPO32-
• H2PO3- Phosphite ion
Hydrogen phosphite or (biphosphite ion )
• PO43- Dihydrogen phosphite ion
• HPO42-
• H2PO4-

Phosphate ion
Biphosphate ion or (hydrogen phosphate ion) Atoms,
Dihydrogen phosphate ion Molecules,
and Ions
Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

• When there are two oxyanions involving

the same element:
The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite
• NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite
The one with more oxygens ends in -ate
• NO3− : nitrate; SO42− : sulfate

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Common Anions

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 examples

• Acetate ion --------------------- C2H3O2-

• Permanganate ion ----------- MnO4-

• Chromate ion ---------- CrO 42-

• Dichromate ion --------- Cr 2O72-

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Patterns in Oxyanion
Nomenclature
• The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite
ClO2− : chlorite
• The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate
ClO3− : chlorate

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Inorganic Nomenclature
Ionic Compounds Nomenclature
• Names of ionic compounds consist of the cation
name followed by the anion name.
•
• Example: BaBr2 = barium bromide.
• How?
• Write the name of the cation.
• If the anion is an element, change its ending to -ide; if
the anion is a polyatomic ion, simply write the name
of the polyatomic ion.
• If the cation can have more than one possible
charge, write the charge as a Roman numeral in
parentheses. Example :
CuO copper(II) oxide Atoms,
cupric oxide Molecules,
and Ions
Cu2O copper (I) oxide or cuprous oxide
 exercise
• Name the following compounds
(a) NH4Br
(b) Cr2O3
(c) Co(NO3)2
(d) MgSO4
(e) Ag2S
(f) Pb(NO3)2
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Exercise 2
• Name the following compounds
(a) NH4BrO4 ------ Ammonium perbromate
(b) K2CrO4 ----- Potassium chromate
(c) Ca(HCO3)2 ----- Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(d) Mg(C2H3O2)2 ---- Magnesium acetate
(e) Ag2SO3 -------- Silver sulfite
(f) Pb(ClO)2 --------- Lead(II) hypochlorite
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 3. Ionic Compounds
Names and Formulas of Acids
• Acids are substances that yield hydrogen ions when
dissolved in water (Arrhenius definition).
Acid + water  H+ + others
• The names of acids are related to the names of
anions:
• -ide becomes hydro-….-ic acid;
example: HCl hydrochloric acid
• -ate becomes -ic acid;
example: HClO4 perchloric acid
• -ite becomes -ous acid.
Atoms,
example: HClO hypochlorous acid Molecules,
and Ions
 examples
Br- bromide ion , HBr Hydrobromic acid
F- fluoride ion , HF Hydrofluoric acid
I- Iodide ion , HI Hydroiodic acid

SO42- sulfate ion , H2SO4 Sulfuric acid

CO32- carbonate ion , H2CO3 Carbonic acid
PO43- Phosphate ion , H3PO4 phosphoric acid
ClO4- perchlorate ion , HClO4 perchloric acid
ClO3- Chlorate ion , HClO3 chloric acid
SO32- sulfite ion , H2SO3 Sulfurous acid
PO33- Phosphite ion , H3POi phosphorous acid
ClO2- chlorite ion , HClO2 chlorous acid Molecules,
Atoms,

and Ions
ClO- hypoChlorite ion , HClO hypochlorous acid
Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ide, change the
ending to -ic acid and add
the prefix hydro- :
 HCl: hydrochloric acid
 HBr: hydrobromic acid
 HI: hydroiodic acid
 H2S: Hydrogen sulfuric acid

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ite, change
the ending to -ous
acid:
 HClO: hypochlorous
acid
 HClO2: chlorous acid

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid:
 HClO3: chloric acid
 HClO4: perchloric acid

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Exercise

• Name the following

• HNO3
• HNO2
• HS-
• HPO42-
• H2CrO4
• HC2H3O2
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Names and Formulas of Binary
Molecular Compounds
• Binary molecular compounds have two elements.
• The most metallic element (i.e., the one to the farthest left on
the periodic table) is usually written first. The exception is
oxygen (oxygen is always written last except when combined with
fluorine).
• If both elements are in the same group, the lower one is
written first.
• Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms
(e.g., mono, di, tri).
• The prefix mono is never used with the first element (i.e.,
carbon monoxide, CO).
• Examples:
• Cl2O is dichlorine monoxide.
• N2O4 is dinitrogen tetroxide.
• NF3 is nitrogen trifluoride. Atoms,
Molecules,
• P4S10 is tetraphosphorus decasulfide. and Ions
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
• The less electronegative
atom is usually listed
first.
• A prefix is used to
denote the number of
atoms of each element
in the compound (mono-
is not used on the first
element listed, however.)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
• The ending on the more
electronegative element is
changed to -ide.

 CO2: carbon dioxide

 CCl4: carbon tetrachloride

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
If the prefix ends with a
or o and the name of the
element begins with a
vowel, the two
successive vowels are
often elided into one:

N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 exercise
1- Name te following compounds:
(a) SO2
(b) PCl5
(c) N2O5

2- Give the chemical formula for:

(a) Silicon tetrabromide
(b) Disulfur dichloride
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Name the following
compounds
• S 2O 3
• SO3
• C2S2
• HIO3
• HBrO2
• KCr2O7
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions