Coral Reefs—

health and hazards

Dr. Maia McGuire

University of
Florida/Sea Grant
Photo by Mike
White, FKNMS
 What is a Coral?
Animal, vegetable or mineral?

It’s an animal which

may live with a
plant and makes a
mineral-based
skeleton.
Illustration by Geoff Kelley in
JEN Veron (2000) Corals of
the World, AIMS, Townsville
 Coral structure
Individual animals are called polyps
Several polyps make up a colony
Corals are closely related to jellyfish
and sea anemones—they all contain
stinging cells called nematocysts.
 Coral reefs
Reef-building corals require clear,
warm water
Shallow areas
Most reefs are between 26° N and S
latitude
There are corals found off Alaska and
other cold waters, but they grow very
slowly and do not form reefs
 Symbiosis
E.C. Peters

Many hard and soft corals (and some

jellyfish and sea anemones) contain a
symbiotic single-celled brown
dinoflagellate (algae) called
zooxanthellae
This is a mutualistic symbiosis
Bleaching occurs when corals lose
their zooxanthellae
 Coral Bleaching
Response to stress
Temperature
UV
Oxygen
Darkness
Sedimentation J. Hoggesteger
Who initiates bleaching?
Can corals recover?
 Patterns of bleaching
Seasonal—usually in summer
 Geographically, often
begins in the Caribbean
and spreads northwards
 Physically, there are often
bleached patches on the
sides of large coral heads
(especially Montastraeas)
ENSO
 Zooxanthellae “clades”
Three groups of zooxanthellae have
been identified
Each group has different environmental
tolerances and is found in different
locations on the coral head

Photo by Scott R. Santos,

SUNY Buffalo
Where do zooxanthellae go?
“Free” zooxanthellae are rarely
found in plankton samples
May become benthic, sessile
May go into dormant stage

Presumably free zooxanthellae do

exist
 Coral reproduction
 Asexual reproduction
(usually in branching
corals; often storm-
related)
Sexual reproduction
Hermaphroditic or gonochoristic
Self- or cross-fertilization
Internal or external fertilization
Brooders or broadcast spawners
Richard Fitzpatrick
Bette Willis in J.E.N. Veron
(1987) Corals of Australia
and the Indo-Pacific.
Hawaii University Press
 Brooders
Eggs develop into larvae
internally and may be
brooded for several weeks
Larvae are released, often
at night, often in response
to the lunar cycle
Brooders may have up to
12 reproductive cycles per
R. Hays Cummins
year
 Coral larvae (planulae)
 Swim using tiny hairs (cilia)
 May already contain
zooxanthellae Bob Richmond
 Swim for days to weeks before
they settle and
metamorphose
 Settlement may be in response
NOAA
to chemical cues and may be
gregarious
 Status of coral reefs
Globally, coral reefs are generally in
decline
Increasing human population
(especially in coastal areas) increases
the impacts on coral reefs
 Human impacts on coral
reefs
Overfishing
Sedimentation
Nutrient enrichment
Chemicals/oil
Physical damage
(anchors, fishing,
groundings)
 Overfishing

Changes trophic structure

Many large predators are no
longer present NOAA
Grazing fish species are
being collected as food fish
May allow algal overgrowth
of corals
 Nutrient enrichment

Nutrients are elements needed for

growth
If there are not enough of certain
types of nutrients, they are said to be
limiting nutrients
Most common limiting nutrients in the
marine environment are N and P
 Nitrogen Phosphorus
 Available in water as Available in water as
nitrate, nitrite, dissolved inorganic
ammonium or organic phosphate or organic
nitrogen (e.g. urea, phosphorus (dissolved
plant or animal tissues) or particulate)
 How does nutrient
enrichment occur?
Septic tanks/sewage
Leaks
Pumping into the ocean
Fertilizer runoff
Agricultural
Homeowners
Golf courses
 Effects of increasing
nutrients
Cause increase in
plant (algae)
growth
Macroalgae
Microalgae
(phytoplankton)
 HAB’s/Red tides

Blooms of “harmful algae”

Pfisteria
Cause human health
problems
Mote Marine Lab
Cause fish kills
May be killing dolphins,
manatees
FMRI
Effects of increased nutrients
on corals
Cause decrease in coral
growth
Direct chemical
interference with skeleton
formation
Result of overshading by
algae
Jennifer M. Smith
 The nutrient-calcification
mystery
If zooxanthellae help corals calcify,
then why do enriched corals, which
contain more zooxanthellae, calcify
less?
Zooxanthellae are N-limited
“Excess” photosynthate is given to coral
If zooxanthellae grow, there is less
photosynthate to give to the corals
 But….
 There are more zooxanthellae per cm² of coral,
so the animal receives the same amount of
carbon…

=
 Is the type of carbon compound different in
enriched and control corals?
 Chemicals/oil
 Non point-source pollution
– 51% of the oil entering the oceans is
from runoff
– 5% is from big spills
– 19% is from routine maintenance
– 2% is from offshore drilling
– 13% is from burning fuels (e.g. car exhaust)
– 10% is from natural seeps
 Physical damage
Thomas Heeger,
Fishing techniques in the South Philippines

Pacific include dynamiting or

poisoning reefs to collect aquarium
fish for export
Boat anchors and boat/ship
groundings cause damage that can
take thousands of years to re-grow
Natural impacts
 Marine debris
Suffocation risk
Balloons/bags
Entanglement/entrapment
Fishing line/ropes
Old nets
Abandoned traps/pots
 What can you do?
Reduce, reuse, recycle
Motor oil
Fishing line
Read and follow instructions
on chemicals, including
fertilizers
Fix automotive leaks
 What does the future hold?
The answer is up to you…

1988
USGS

1998
USGS