Observation Method

Naveed Iqbal
 Observation
• The systematic process of recording the
behavioral patterns of people, objects, and
occurrences as they are witnessed.
 Advantages of Observation
• Researcher-centered
• Less time/resource consuming
• Offers wide range data collection
• No need to communicate with respondents
• No need of memory recall by respondents
• Recording of nonverbal behaviors
• Recording of environment of situation
• Quick data collection
• Open to triangulation of methods
• Validity-targeted
 Disadvantages of Observation
• Not applicable to complex/large groups/events
• Can not assess past or future
• Can not assess personal spheres of life
• Observer’s bias
• Limited scope of observation
• Dependency on observer’s skills
• Data interpretation is complex
• Time-based observation opportunity only
• Ethical concern regarding privacy
• Reliability/Generalization Concerns
 Types of Observation
• Naive/Scientific Observation
• Non-Participant/Participant Observation
• Structured/Unstructured Observation
• Natural/Laboratory Observation
• Open/Hidden Observation
• Active/Passive Observation
• Direct/Indirect Observation
 Types of Observation
• Continuous Observation
• Time-point Observation
• Time-Interval Observation
• Event Observation
• Physical-Trace Observation
• Content Analysis Observation
• Mechanical Observation (Counters, Scanners,
Trackers, Physiological Response Analysis)
 Observation Design
1. Selection of Topic
– Selection of observable phenomenon
– Theoretical approach to selected issue
2. Formulation of the Topic
– Defining problem
– Exploring elements, structure, categories of problem
– Establishing observer-subject relationship (What & Why)
3. Research Design
– Deciding subjects to be observed
– Deciding observation setting
– Deciding observation protocols
4. Data Collection
– Entry, familiarization, initial interaction, observation, recording
5. Data Analysis & Reporting Results
– Analysis and report writing
 Observation Errors
• Observer’s Bias
• Lack of observer ability
• Attention
• Inconsistency
• Deviation
• Deception
• Lack of knowledge of research design
• Lack of familiarity with subjects