Reading Comprehension

Skills
SKIMMNG AND SCANNING
Skimming and scanning are especially valuable when there is
only one item of information that you need to find from a
particular passage.

• Skimming and scanning are very

rapid reading methods in which
you glance at a passage to find
specific information. These
reading methods make it easier
for you to grasp large amounts
of material, especially when
you're previewing. They are also
useful when you don't need to
know every word.
Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important
information or ‘gist’. It’s not essential to understand each
word when you are skimming.

Run your eyes over the text, noting important information.

Use skimming to quickly get up to speed on a current business
situation.
 Examples of Skimming:

• The Newspaper – to quickly get the

general news of the day
• Magazines – to quickly discover which
articles you would like to read in more
detail
• Business and Travel Brochures – to quickly
get informed
 How to Skim?

Working quickly…

1. Read the title if there is one.

2. Read the introduction or the first paragraph if there is one.
3. Read the first sentence of every other paragraph.
4. Notice any pictures, charts, or graphs.
5. Notice any italicized or boldface words or phrases.
6. Read the summary or last paragraph if there is one.
 Skim and scan this paragraph in 30 seconds

• When you skim and scan, you need to cover

everything, even titles, subtitles, side features, and
visuals. That bit of information you need may not be
tidily packaged in a paragraph, so you need to check
the entire page--not just the main body of the text,
there are also many visual clues that help you to
find information. Heads and subheads break up the
text and identify the content of each part. Where
key terms are introduced and defined, they appear
in boldface type. Graphs and charts have titles
and/or captions that tell you what they are about.
These clues will help you to find information. . . but
only if you use them.
In other words, when you are skimming
and scanning…

1. Cover everything
2. Check entire page
3. Notice visual clues
4. Notice graphs, charts, titles,
captions
Scanning is a reading technique to be used when you want
to find specific information quickly. In scanning you have a
question in your mind and you read a passage only to find
the answer, ignoring unrelated information.

Examples of Scanning:

A google search list on the internet.

A bus / airplane schedule
A conference guide
 A graph
 How to scan
1. State the specific information you are looking for.

1. Try to anticipate how the answer will appear and what

clues you might use to help you locate the answer. For
example, if you were looking for a certain date, you would
quickly read the paragraph looking only for numbers.

1. Use headings and any other aids that will help you identify
which sections might contain the information you are
looking for.

1. Selectively read and skip through sections of the passage.

 Conclusion
Skimming and scanning is used when reading all
types of documents.
We skim to get the idea of what a document is
about and typically skim all documents before we
actually begin to read.
As we skim, we…
think about the topic
think about what we already know about the topic
start to guess or anticipate the details we are going to
read about.
We scan for specific information.
We work quickly when we skim and scan.
Main Idea &
Supporting
Details

Wash Publishing Co. 2009

 Main Idea
• The main idea is the “big point”
or the most important idea that
the writer is communicating to
the reader.
• Often the reader can find the
main idea just by looking at the
title.
• For example, a passage titled:
“Why Students Should Have
Less Homework” will include
reasons for that idea.
Reader’s Journey page 178
Wash Publishing Co. 2009
 What’s the Point?
• Read this short paragraph:
Engineers create wealth for society. So,
tennis is a game and the resources of the
earth are scarce. Have you gone mad?
Thus the only solution is to educate the
public on being socially responsible.

DID THIS MAKE SENSE?????

 OF COURSE NOT!!!
• It didn’t have a MAIN IDEA!
• We would go crazy if texts were written
like this all the time.
• It was difficult to understand because it
was made of different ideas that did not
link. There was no common thread.
• The good news is that normal passages
have main ideas!
 Main Idea ma

• Main Idea - is like the heart

of the text or a paragraph.
• It is the controlling idea.
• All the other supporting details in the text
or within a paragraph should tell us more
about the main idea.
Ask Yourself….
WHO or WHAT
is this passage
about?”

Wash Publishing Co. 2009

 The Topic Sentence
• Many paragraphs have topic
sentences that indicate the main
idea.
• Find the topic sentence in this
paragraph:
Homeless people have many
problems. In winter, it’s hard to
stay warm and it gets too hot in
summer. It’s also hard to keep
things safe without a home.
Worst is the lack of privacy.
 Supporting Details
• Supporting details prove the
value of the main idea. What
are they here?
Homeless people have many
problems. In winter, it’s hard
to stay warm and it gets too hot
in summer. It’s also hard to
keep things safe without a
home. Worst is the lack of
privacy.
 Stated and Implied Main Idea…
• Sometimes, a paragraph has a stated main idea
usually in the topic sentence. This means the
paragraph “says” what the main idea is.
• Sometimes, a paragraph doesn’t have a stated main
idea, but has an “implied” main idea. This means
that you need to state the main idea in your own
words because it doesn’t actually “say” it in the
paragraph. Let’s take a look at two examples…
“The students had fun on their field trip.  They
Visited  the Marine Museum.  They were able
to tour a tug boat and they bought souvenirs
in the gift shop.  After the tours they ate a
picnic lunch in the park and played with their
friends.”

The underlined portion of the sentence is the

main idea and is stated for the reader.
 “The Native Americans used the trees to build
their houses. They hunted and trapped animals
in the forest for food. They found roots and
berries that they could eat. Some plants found
in the forest were used for medicine.”

In this paragraph, the main idea isn’t stated.

However, by reading the paragraph, the reader
can determine the main idea: Native Americans
used resources in the forest to survive.

 
 
 Too much information…
• All of the sentences in a paragraph should
support the main idea of that paragraph.
• Information that does not support the main
idea does not belong in the same paragraph.
• Take a look at the example on the next slide.
Find the “extra” information that does not
support the main idea…
“Maria offered to help her mother clean the
house. She vacuumed the living room and
dusted the furniture. She picked up the toys
in the playroom. She ate a ham sandwich for
lunch. Then, she mopped the kitchen floor.”

Which sentence does not support

the main idea?
 Find the sentence that does not
support the main idea…
“Winter provides the opportunity for many
outdoor activities. Many people enjoy ice
skating on a pond. Swimming in the pond in
summer can also be fun. Skiing can be a
thrilling experience too. After a new
snowfall,
you can even build a snowman!”
 “The rain forest is home to many creatures.
Monkeys, toucans and macaws live in the rain forest.
Butterflies and anteaters also live in the rain forest.”

What is the main idea?

A) Sloths and tapirs are other creatures that live in the rain forest.
B) The rain forest is home to many creatures.
C) Monkeys, toucans and macaws live in the rain forest.
 “Soccer players learn many skills when playing
soccer. Soccer players learn how to dribble and pass
the ball. They also learn how to control the ball so
they can eventually score. Most importantly, soccer
players learn how to work together with their
teammates.”

What is the main idea?

A) They also learn how to control the ball so they can eventually score.
B) Soccer players learn how to dribble.
C) Soccer players learn many skills when playing soccer.
“Swimming is one thing that can be done at the
beach. Snorkeling is another thing that can be
enjoyed. Playing beach volleyball can be a lot of
fun. It is also fun to look for shells. Some people
simply like to sunbathe.”

What is the implied main idea?

Making Inferences
 Inference
• Take what you know and make a
guess!
• Draw personal meaning from text
(words) or pictures.
• You use clues to come to your own
conclusion.
 Schema
• Your schema is what
you already know
about a topic
• Think about a schema
as a file folder in your
mind
 Activating Your Schema
• When you start to
read a text, you need
to open up the file
folder about the
topic
• This is called
“activating your
schema”
 Make an Inference!
• What does this image tell me?
 Question…
• What did I already know that
helped me make that inference?
• Did I use picture or written clues?
Help Me Make an
Inference!
 More Questions…
• Did you use words, graphs, or
picture clues to help you make a
guess about what that cartoon
meant?
How Do Good Readers Make
Inferences?
• They use:
1. Word/text clues
2. Picture clues
3. Define unknown words
4. Look for emotion (feelings)
5. Use what they already know
6. Look for explanations for events
7. ASK themselves questions!
 Make Another Inference
• Miss White has recess duty. Jacob finds a
frog, picks it up, and runs over to show it
to Miss White. Miss White screams,
jumps, and runs as fast as she can into
the school.
• What can you infer from this passage?
• What are the “clues” in this passage?
 Making Predictions

Hmmm… What will happen next?

Thinking about what
might happen is called
making predictions.
predictions
 When you make
predictions, you are like a
detective.
You use clues in the story
to help you predict.
 Making Predictions
Use information from the story.

Use what you already

know.
Put the information together.
Ask yourself if your prediction
makes sense.
 Let’s try it!
The weather forecast is for rain.

Which sentence best tells what would happen next?

Winston will take an umbrella to

school.
Winston will leave his umbrella at home.
Sometimes we might struggle
understanding because:
 We don’t predict what the selection might
be about.

 We don’t think about what we already

know about a topic.

 We don’t form images as we read.

We often just open a book, look at words, and

begin turning pages.
 Kevin’s Book
Kevin read a book he liked a lot. He
was sorry when the story ended. He
thought the author had done a great
job. The next day Kevin took the
book back to the library.
What are the facts?
What did Kevin think about the book?
How did Kevin feel when he finished
the book?

What did Kevin think about the

author?
Make a prediction
about Kevin’s book

What author might Kevin look for

when he borrows another book?

Why do you think so?

 Read and make your
prediction!
On the way to school Ryan hit a big
bump and fell off his bike. After he fell
he stood up and saw that he had
skinned his knee. When he got to
school his pants were ripped. What do
you think he will do?
 Possible Answer:

Ryan would probably call home and ask

someone to bring him a different pair of
pants.
 Read and predict
When Brandon and Deon were
camping they decided to go fishing.
While they were fishing they caught
twelve fish. When it was time to go
back to the camp site they put all the
fish in a bucket. What do you think
that they did with the fish? Why?
I predict that Brandon and Deon will take
the fish out of the bucket when they get
back to the camp site and then they will
cook and eat the fish for dinner.
 What Am I?

1. I come from trees

2. I come in different colors
3. You can fold me
4. You put me in the trash when
you are finished with me
5. I can be crumpled
6. I watch you eat

Grocery Bag Napkin silverware

 What Am I?

1. I can make you neat

2. Sometimes my teeth need
cleaning
3. Sometimes you can part with
me
4. I can be kept in a purse or a
pocket

Chop stick toothbrush comb

 Remember
• Sometimes you will find new
clues as you read.
• This means you are being
an active reader and a good
detective
• Think about the new clues
and what you already know.
• Then make new predictions!
Drawing Conclusions
When you draw a conclusion you use
2 things:

What you know in your head.

and
What you’ve read in the story.

A conclusion is the decision you come

to when you put these two together.
 I sleep in a crib.

I drink from a bottle.

I cannot walk or talk.

Who am I?
 Put me on your feet.

I will keep you

warm and dry.

Wear me when it rains.

You need me before you can mail a
letter. Paste me on an envelope.
What am I?

What did you know in

your head?
 I look like a baby.
You can give me a name.
Children like to play with me.
What am I?

What did you know in

your head?
I grow on an ear. Cook me in hot oil.
I will puff up and taste good. Some
people microwave me.
What am I?

What did you know in

your head?
Sequence
The order that events take place
is called Sequence.
Words like first, next and last
help readers figure out the
order of events. Good readers
pay attention to the order in
which things happen.
First
Next put the meat and
Lastclose thesandwich.
eat the sandwich.
cheese on the bread.
 Put the ordinal words by the correct sentence.

last Grandma put the fish in a hot

pan.
first Max got a red ball in his net.
next Grandma bought a fat fish.

first next last

 Put the ordinal words by the correct sentence.

next The kids went on stage.

last The cat came out with the hat
on.
first The kids made animal masks

first next last

 Put the ordinal words by the correct sentence.

next He sees a herd of

triceratops.
first
Big T. Rex wakes up.
last
He runs up and down the
slope.

first next last

Put the ordinal words by the correct sentence.

first The herd sees T. Rex

coming.
last The baby gets inside the
circle.
next The herd makes a big circle.

first next last

 Cause
The cause is the
and Effect
girl swings the The effect is
club and hits the the ball moves.
ball.
A cause is something that
makes something else
happen.
An effect is what happens.
 Cause and Effect
• Nothing happens without
a reason or without some
kind of consequence.
• When you explain why
things happen and what
occurs when they do, the
technique you use is
called cause and effect.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 The cause
answers
the
question
why?
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Cause and Effect
Cause is why something happened.
Effect is the result of what happened.
Because effects always have causes and
causes always lead to effects, we rarely
see one without the other.

RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Cause and Effect
• The cause is the first thing that happens.
• It makes the second thing (the effect) happen.
• The part of the sentence after the word because
is the cause.

Example:
I stayed home from school
because I had the flu.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Cause and Effect
• The effect is the second thing that happens.
• The effect answers the questions:
What happened?
What was the result?

Example:
Jaime was going too fast and fell off his bicycle.

RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Understanding Cause and Effect Relationships
• In some paragraphs, the cause-and-effect
relationship is not directly stated.
• In these cases, you have to -
"read between the lines."
• Use clues from the paragraph
to identify cause-and-effect
relationships.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Look for effects that are also causes.
Effects can form chains where one effect goes on to cause a
second effect, which may then cause a third effect and so on.
Example:
When people pollute rivers, they destroy the habitats of fish.
This reduces the number of fish that can reproduce. As a
result, fewer fish are born in fresh water, and the fish
population declines.
Cause1: People pollute rivers .
Effect 1: The habitats of fish are destroyed.
Effect 2: Fewer fish can reproduce.
Effect 3: Fewer fish are born in fresh water.
Effect 4: The fish population declines.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Understanding Cause and Effect Relationships
• You use cause and effect every day when you
solve problems and make decisions.
• As a result, understanding causes and effects is
extremely important in day-to-day living.
• Learning to identify cause and effect
relationships helps you understand what
is happening in the world around you.

RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Clue Words for Cause
These expressions indicate cause -
 Because…
 Since…
 Cause..
 Reason..
 So that
 Unless..
 The main reason…
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Let’s see how this works –
As a result of his bad fall, Professor
Green is wearing bandages and a cast.

I’m all
bandaged
up because
of my fall.

RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Helpful Tip
Try this idea when you are not sure.
When you answer a question that
begins with why, try putting the word
because in front of your answer
choices. Then read the choices this
way to help figure out the correct
answer.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 The crime rate in Mr. Leon’s
neighborhood was very high.
Many houses had been robbed
and cars vandalized. All the
neighbors were upset. The
mayor ordered the police to
patrol the neighborhood. Within
two weeks, the neighborhood’s
crime rate dropped drastically.
Finally, everyone felt safe again.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Why did the crime rate drop?
A. All the neighbors were upset.
B. Houses and cars were robbed
and vandalized.
C. The mayor called for added
police protection.
D. Everyone in the neighborhood
felt safe again.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Why did the crime rate drop?
A. Because all the neighbors were upset.
B. Because houses and cars were
robbed and vandalized.
C. Because the mayor called for
added police protection.
D. Because everyone in the
neighborhood felt safe again.

RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Clue Words for Effect
These expressions indicate effect -
 As a result of
 If
 Consequently
 Effect
 Therefore
 Thus
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 About 75 million people died from the
bubonic plague during the 14th century. Half
of the population of Italy fell victim to the
disease. The plague caused high fever,
swollen glands, dark bruises or sores on the
face, and spitting of blood. Most people who
got the disease died within five days. The
disease was spread by fleas from rats. Lack
of sanitation and poor medical knowledge
account for the continuous plague epidemics
throughout the 14th century.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Practice Question
What caused so many people to die from
the bubonic plague?
A. Lack of sanitation and poor medical
knowledge account for the continuous
plague epidemics.
B. The dead were buried without the usual
prayers.
C. Italy was constantly at war.
C. The victims got large bruises or
sores on the face.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Practice Question
What caused so many people to die from
the bubonic plague?
A. Lack of sanitation and poor medical
knowledge account for the continuous
plague epidemics.
B. The dead were buried without the usual
prayers.
C. Italy was constantly at war.
C. The victims got large bruises or
sores on the face.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
The phrase account for was your clue.
 Practice Question
Marcia was a skilled and capable driver. She had driven all
the way from New Mexico in her brand-new car without any
problems. Suddenly, because she hit a long patch of frozen
ice, she lost control and the car ended up in a ditch. As she
climbed out, she realized that the car was demolished.

What was the cause of Marcia’s accident?

A. She was very tired from the long drive.
B. The road was icy.
C. The car was new.
D.Secondary
RPDP She landed in a ditch.
Literacy
 Practice Question
Marcia was a skilled and capable driver. She had driven all
the way from New Mexico in her brand-new car without any
problems. Suddenly, because she hit a long patch of frozen
ice, she lost control and the car ended up in a ditch. As she
climbed out, she realized that the car was demolished.

What was the cause of Marcia’s accident?

A. She was very tired from the long drive.
B. The road was icy.
C. The car was new.
How did you do?
D. She
RPDP Secondary landed in a ditch.
Literacy
 Practice Question
The simple sneeze is actually a complex reaction. The impulse
to sneeze comes from irritation of a group of nerves in back of
the eyes. When the signals reach the brain, the body takes a
quick breath, then muscles contract violently. Finally, the
sound “kerchoo” comes out.
What is the initial cause of sneeze?
A. Nerves are irritated.
B. The brain is signaled.
C. Eyes are irritated.
D. Muscles contract violently.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Practice Question
The simple sneeze is actually a complex reaction. The impulse
to sneeze comes from irritation of a group of nerves in back of
the eyes. When the signals reach the brain, the body takes a
quick breath, then muscles contract violently. Finally, the
sound “kerchoo” comes out.
What is the initial cause of sneeze?
A. Nerves are irritated. How did you do?
B. The brain is signaled.
C. Eyes are irritated.
D. Muscles contract violently.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Practice Question
Carlos Palomino was a champion boxer. Yet he gave up
boxing and earned a degree in recreation. He chose this field
because he wanted to work with kids. Not everyone can
become a paid athlete, he says. That’s why school is so
important for all young people. Carlos hopes his example will
help others set high goals in education as well in sports.
Why did Carlos get the degree in recreation?
• He had earned many honors.
• He wanted to work with kids.
• Not everyone can become a paid athlete.
• He was an ideal boxer.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
 Practice Question
Carlos Palomino was a champion boxer. Yet he gave up
boxing and earned a degree in recreation. He chose this field
because he wanted to work with kids. Not everyone can
become a paid athlete, he says. That’s why school is so
important for all young people. Carlos hopes his example will
help others set high goals in education as well in sports.
Why did Carlos get the degree in recreation?
A. He had earned many honors.
B. He wanted to work with kids. How did you do?
C. Not everyone can become a paid athlete.
D. He was an ideal boxer.
RPDP Secondary
Literacy
Definition of Synthesis
“Synthesizing is the process whereby a student merges
new information with prior knowledge to form a new
idea, perspective, or opinion to generate insight”
(Shannon Bumgarner).
Therefore, synthesis is an ongoing process. As new
knowledge is acquired, it is synthesized with prior
knowledge to generate new ideas.
Skills Needed for Synthesis
“Synthesis is the most complex of the reading
strategies. Synthesizing lies on a continuum of
evolving thinking. Synthesizing runs the gamut from
taking stock of meaning while reading to achieving
new insight” (Harvey and Goudvis 144).
The skills needed to synthesize reading materials are
the ability to summarize information, paraphrase it,
and compare and contrast it. Other necessary skills are
the ability to separate fact from opinion, draw
inferences based on the facts presented, and evaluate
that information to form your own conclusions.
Metaphors
A Journey
Synthesizing can be compared to a journey. You begin
with prior knowledge of a topic, gain new knowledge
about that topic from a variety of sources, combine
and analyze this information, and at your final
destination, evaluate the information and form an
opinion.
Another Metaphor
The Jigsaw Puzzle Metaphor
Another way to view synthesizing is to look at it as
putting the pieces of a puzzle together. You collect the
pieces of information from various sources and find
connections to put together the entire picture.
The Scaffolding Metaphor
Building upon Prior Knowledge
Since newly acquired information should be
synthesized with previously learned information, you
should activate your prior knowledge of a topic being
studied, researched, or discussed in class.
Make connections between new and prior knowledge
in a synthesis journal as you read. This will result in
easier understanding of new information
(www.greece).
Synthesis Journal
“Synthesis journals take multiple perspectives on a
topic from various sources and attempt to synthesize
them all. . . .[The information can come] from a text, a
video . . . classmates, and personal experiences . . . to
develop an overall synthesis” (McAlexander and
Burrell).
Therefore, a synthesis journal will contain knowledge
brought to the lesson and all information learned in
the course of the lesson from a variety of sources.
Graphic Organizers
As an alternative to a synthesis journal, Shannon
Bumgarner suggests the use of a graphic organizer to
aid students in synthesizing reading materials.
The graphic organizer contains three columns: “Five
Key Concepts,” “Put the Concept in Your Own Words,”
and “Explain Why the Concept Is Important & Make
Connections to Other Concepts.”
Conclusion
Finally, by activating prior knowledge of a topic,
comparing and contrasting information, and
separating fact from opinion, you will be able to
synthesize information from a variety of sources, form
educated opinions, and draw logical conclusions.
then
Connect to the Text
What do we already
know?
1.What do you know about
summarizing? What words come
to mind?

2. How do you summarize?

 to present the substance
or general idea in brief form;

 to create a clear, concise, and

complete condensed
account of the original;
 to cover the main points
Why is
summarizing
important?
“Practice in summarizing
improves students’ reading
comprehension of fiction and
nonfiction alike, helping to
construct an overall
understanding of a text, story,
chapter, or article.”
(Rinehart, Stahl & Erickson, 1986)
Be a News Reporter
 Ways to introduce a summary:
 The most important ideas in this
text are…
 This book was about…
 First… Next… Then… Finally…
 This story takes place…
 The main characters are…
 The problem occurs when…
Steps to identify the topic ~
Identify All Details/Major Events
Authors often plant important ideas in:
 Details that reflect the title
 Details at the beginning of text
 Details at the end
 Surprises or revelations
 Repetitions
 Lots of attention given to a detail
 Subheads and italicized text
 Changes in character, tone, mood, setting, plot
 A question near the beginning or end
How to evaluate your summary
 Key word (s)
Key word (s)
Summarizing
Summarizing
Fourth text First text
chunk chunk
Title
of Text
to be
Summarized
Key word (s) Key word (s)
Summarizing Summarizing
Third text Second text
chunk chunk
Somebody/Wanted/But/So Then

Reading Skills Important

to Summarization
• Conflict/Resolution
• Character Differences, Goals,
and Motivations
• Main Ideas and Details
• Making Generalizations
 Excerpt from The Necklace
Mrs. Loisel wanted to be rich and wanted to
go to the dance. BUT she didn’t have the
right clothes and jewelry. SO she shamed
her husband into buying her a dress and
she borrowed a necklace. THEN Mrs. Loisel
wanted to give back the necklace after she
wore it. BUT she had lost it. SO she and
her husband had to find a new one and
THEN borrow money to buy it so she could
return the replacement to her friend.
 Sum It Up!
“She put on two woolen suits,
one on top of the other. Then
she put on two leather suits and
covered her bulky outfit with a
skirt.”
Excerpt from Ruth Law Thrills a Nation (Brown, 1993)
3 – 2 – 1 Strategy
3 Things You Found Out

2 Interesting Facts

1 Question You Still Have

Connect to the Text
SYNTHESIZE – Beyond Summary

together
The putting

so as to
of parts or
form a whole

elements
Synthesis is…
“The process of ordering, recalling,
retelling, and recreating into a
coherent whole the information
with which our minds are
bombarded every day. It is the
uniquely human trait that permits
us to sift through a myriad of
details and focus on those pieces
we need to know and remember.”
(Keene/Zimmerman)
 “Synthesizing is
like inferring, only
super-sized!”
“When you
synthesize you say “When I
in your head, I used synthesize, my
mind is changing, my
to think this, but
ideas are changing, my
now I’m
thinking is
thinking this.”
changing.”
changing.”
Bringing
It home…
“As families share the events of the
day, they are synthesizing, sorting
out the unimportant, and creating
individual interpretations of the
day.”
Keene, Zimmerman
Synthesizing
How is synthesizing
important for you
understanding?
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Cues for Synthesis
 Combine  Compose
 Integrate  Construct
 Modify  Develop
 Rearrange  Organize
 Substitute  Perform
 Plan  Produce
 Create  Propose
 Design  Rewrite
 Invent
Two-Word Strategy
 Read a thought-provoking article.
 Write only two different words that
reflect your thinking about the
passage.
 After selections, tell others the
words, why you chose them, and
how they relate to your life.
Strip Poem
 Each person writes
one item that he/she
knows about the subject studied.
 The strips of paper are read aloud in a small
group.
 The group organizes itself in some coherent
form.
 The group reads the “poem” to the class.
Save the Last Word for Me
Directions:
1. Select a quote from the article you’ve
read. Write your thought/
idea/question about the quote.
2. In a small group, give your quote
and allow all others to respond.
3. At the end, share your comments.
 Character Hot Seat
 Student sits in a chair in front of the
room and assume a character from
their book.
 Ask student various questions about
his/her character’s life.
 Move to a higher level and ask
his/her opinion on different subjects
clearly important to that character.
Testing reading
comprehension
 The reading process

Reading is a dynamic process in which the

reader interacts with the text to construct
meaning.  Inherent in constructing meaning
is the reader's ability to activate prior
knowledge, use reading strategies and adapt
to the reading situation.
 What can a skilled reader do?

A skilled reader rapidly and accurately decodes the

words, attaches the meaning to words and
sentences, connects text information to relevant
background knowledge, maintains a mental
representation of what he or she has already
read, forms hypotheses about upcoming
information and makes decisions based on his
or her purpose for reading – all at the same
time. Carlisle and Rice, 2002
 What influences reading
difficulty?
• Reader variables
The reader’s background and subject/topic knowledge,
their cultural knowledge and their knowledge of the
language in which the target texts are written. The
reader’s ability to process printed information is clearly
crucial.
• Text variables
Linguistic features of text clearly affect readability of text
and reader’s comprehension, and text type, organization
and so on as well as text topic influence how well
readers can process meaning. Many features of text
need to be considered in the design of tests of reading.
 What should assessment of
reading focus on?
• Alderson argues that we should focus our assessment of
reading on the target skills we want out students to
develop.
Major reading subskills include
• Reading quickly to skim for gist, scan for specific details,
and establish overall organisation of the text
• Reading carefully for main ideas, supporting details,
author’s argument and purpose, relationship of
paragraphs, and fact vs opinion
• Drawing inferences from both stated and implied content
 Enabling reading skills include

• Understanding at the sentence level (lexis,

syntax, cohesive markers)
• Understanding at inter-sentence level (e.g.
anaphoric/catophoric reference,
recognizing discourse markers)
• Understanding components of non-linear
texts (meaning of graph, chart labels etc)
 Choosing texts

• Many sources for reading texts: purpose written,

taken directly from authentic material or adapted.
• Use a variety of text types; do not select texts of a
particular kind just because they are readily
available
• Choose texts of appropriate length; detailed reading
can be assessed with texts consisting of a few
sentences. Texts of up to 2000 words may be used
for extensive reading at higher levels
•
 Choosing texts
• Choose texts with many discrete pieces of information
• Choose texts that will interest the candidates but will not disturb or
excite them. Avoid texts with controversial or biased material (e.g.
abortion, international disputes, religion). These are not suitable for
assessment because they can upset candidates and affect the
reliability of results.
• You should check the language of your reading texts. Ninety percent
(90%) of the words in a text should be known to students for good
comprehension (Nation 1990).
• Choose topics within the experience of the test takers. However,
avoid texts that contain information which is part of the test takers’
general background knowledge.
Developing test items/questions
• The wording of the reading test questions should
not cause comprehension difficulties to learners.
It should always be within their capabilities and
less demanding than the text itself.
• Responses to test items should make minimal
demands on writing ability.
• The items should be in the same order as the
information in the text. Mixing up the order of
questions increases the difficulty level.
 Assessing reading
comprehension: Three levels
• The first level, literal comprehension, is
the most obvious. Comprehension at this
level involves surface meanings. At this
level, teachers can ask students to find
information and ideas that are explicitly
stated in the text.
 Levels of comprehension

• The second level is interpretive or referential

comprehension. At this level, students go beyond what
is said and read for deeper meanings. They must be able
to read critically and analyse carefully what they have
read. Students need to be able to see relationships
among ideas, for example, how ideas go together and
also see the implied meanings of these ideas. It is also
obvious that before our students can do this, they have
to first understand the ideas that are stated (literal
comprehension).
 Referential Level of
comprehension
• At this level, teachers can ask more challenging
questions such as asking students to do the following:
– Re-arrange the ideas or topics discussed in the text.
– Explain the author's purpose of writing the text.
– Summarize the main idea when this is not explicitly
stated in the text.
– Select conclusions which can be deduced from the
text they have read.
 Levels of comprehension

• Finally, the third level of comprehension is critical

reading whereby ideas and information are evaluated.
Critical evaluation occurs only after our students have
understood the ideas and information that the writer has
presented. At this level, students can be tested on the
following skills:
– The ability to differentiate between facts and opinions.
– The ability to recognize persuasive statements .
– The ability to judge the accuracy of the information
given in the text.
 Some tips on item writing

• Do not write items for which the correct response can be

found without understanding the text.
• Do not write items that some candidates are likely to
answer from general knowledge without reading the text.
• Make the items independent of each other; do not make
the correct response on one item depend on another
item being responded to correctly.
 Possible testing formats for reading tests:
Multiple choice

• Multiple-choice questions are a common

device for testing students’ text
comprehension. They allow testers to
control the range of possible answers to
comprehension questions, and to some
extent to control students’ thought
processes when responding.
 An example
1.1 Read the first part of the text on p. 2 (the left side column), and choose the best
answers (A, B, or C) for items 1-4.
1. This text
A.
is written in an academic register.
B.
has an impersonal tone.
C.
is written as a narrative.

2. One aim of this text is to

A.
argue for better housing for poor people.
B.
describe the writer’s family life.
C.
explain what is needed to become a writer.
8. What does the writer say about North Africa?

A Publishing there is of a high standard.

B Writers have achieved more freedom there.

C Publishing still has a long way to go there.

 Matching
• One alternative objective technique for the
testing of reading is multiple matching.
Here two sets of stimuli have to be
matched against each other as, for
example, matching headings for
paragraphs to their corresponding
paragraph, titles of books against extracts
from each book, and so on
 Example
Read the following extracts (21-25) and decide in which publication they might appear. Use
each of the options below (A-H) only once. There is one option you do not need.
A. Rules for playing a game B. Written safety instructions
C. Instructions for paying tax D. Reverse side of a book’s title page
E. University brochure F. Travel guide

21. Exception for children under age 18. If you are planning to claim a return for your child, who was
under 18 at the end of 2009, and certain other conditions apply, you can include your child’s income
on your form.
22. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or any other information storage or retrieval system, without permis­
sion in writing from the publishers.

23. The inn is a little oasis amidst the narrow and bustling cobbled streets at the heart of the
historic city.
 Ordering tasks (Strip stories)
• Candidates are given a scrambled set of
words, sentences, paragraphs or texts and
have to put them into their correct order.
The ordering tasks can offer the possibility
of testing the ability to detect cohesion,
overall text organization.
 Short-answer tests

• Test-takers are simply asked a question which

requires a brief response, in a few words, not
just Yes/No or True/False. The justification for
this format is that it is possible to interpret
students’ responses to see if they have really
understood, whereas on multiple-choice items
students give no justification for the answer they
have selected and may have chosen one by
eliminating others.
 The free-recall test

• In free-recall tests (sometimes called

immediate-recall tests), students are asked
to read a text, to put it to one side, and then
to write down everything they can
remember from the text. The free-recall test
is often held to provide a purer measure of
comprehension, since test questions do not
intervene between the reader and the text.
 The summary test

• Students read a text and then are required to summarize

the main ideas, either of the whole text or of a part, or
those ideas in the text that deal with a given topic. It is
believed that students need to understand the main
ideas of the texts, to separate relevant from irrelevant
ideas, to organize their thoughts about the text and so
on, in order to be able to do the task satisfactorily.
(Example: Gapped Summary)
• Scoring is problematic and can be subjective
 Information-transfer test

• The students’ task is to identify in the

target text the required information and
then to transfer it, often in some
transposed form, on to a table, map, figure
etc.
 Cloze test

• Cloze Tests are reading passages with the

blanks representing words that are deleted
from the original text; the blanks are to be
filled in by the reader
 Types of cloze test
a. Fixed Ratio Cloze or Nth word deletion
• Words are deleted systematically by counting off,
regardless of the part of speech.
b. Rational Deletion Cloze
• Words are deleted by part of speech or content area
vocabulary.
c. Maze Technique
• Three word choices are provided at each missing word
interval.
d. Limited Cloze
• Word choices (one per blank) are provided all together in
a word bank at the top or bottom of the page.
 Tips for developing reading
comprehension tests
• Make sure your assessment matches your reading program. Test
the skills you have taught
• Sample a range of reading subskills with different task types. Allow
4-10 items per task type
• Choose a range of text types appropriate to your program.
Consider students’ background knowledge and interests in selecting
texts. Familiarity with the topic aids comprehension
• Use authentic or adapted texts whenever possible
• Exploit the entire text. Questions should cover all sections of a text
• Assess inferencing and critical thinking. Include questions that
require students to think beyond what they see in print