What is Decolonization?

• Decolonization: the process of becoming free of

colonial status and achieving statehood
• Between WWI and WWII, movements for
independence begun in earnest in Africa and
Asia
• Dominance of colonial powers seemed at odds
with Allied goals in WWII.
• Call for national self-determination – fight for
independence.
• Empires reluctant to let colonies go.
 Steps to African Independence
N
a
t
i
o
n
alis
m

gre
w

i
n

t
h
ed
i
f
fer
n
t
A
frica
n

c
o
u
n
tries
a
f
ter
W
W
I.

A
f
r
i
c
a
n

l
e
a
d
e
r
s

b
e
g
a
n

t
o

u
s
e

t
h
e

c
r
y

o
f

“
A
f
r
i
c
a

f
o
r

A
f
r
i
c
a
n
s
”
.
Steps to African Independence

African leaders organized political

parties and staged strikes & boycotts.

Organization of African Unity - Formed

in 1963 to promote peace and
independence

Pan-Africanism – calls for the unifying of

all of Africa
 In the 1950s & 1960s, The first sub-Saharan
African colonies African colony to gain
experienced decolonization its independence was
& gained independence Ghana in 1957
 Road towards independence
• Post-WWII - a focus on self-determination in Europe
• Colonialism seemed to contradict the spirit of the Allies fight
against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy
• Over 200,000
Africans had fought
in Europe and Asia
for the Allies’
freedom and
democracy – most
noticed the
contradiction
 Effect of WWII
• Surge of anti-colonial nationalism after 1945.
Leaders used lessons in mass politicization and
mass mobilization of 1920’s and 1930’s.
• Three patterns:
 Violent Revolutions and
Civil War (China, Algeria,
Angola, Vietnam)
 Non-Violent, negotiated
independence (India, Ghana,
Turkey)
 Both violent and non-violent
methods (Kenya, Congo,
Egypt, South Africa)
 Impact of the Cold War
• Soviet pushed anti-colonial movement -
offered assistance
• United States wanted access to African
markets (why were they closed before?)
AND to prevent the spread of
communism.
• When West refused to help nationalists,
they turned to the Soviet Union
 Road towards Independence
• Most Europeans planned a “long transition”
period to independence
• By mid-1950’s pace increased
• 1960 considered the year of Africa with so
many nations gaining independence
 End of an Empire?
“The wind of change is blowing through this
continent, and whether we like it or not, this
growth of national consciousness is a political
fact. We must all accept it, and our national
policies must take account of it.”
- British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan in 1960 to the South
African Parliament

• What is the significance of this statement to the British

Empire?
Colonial Rule and Independence in
Africa
Phases of Decolonization in
Africa
 Phases of Decolonization

• Phase One: roughly 1957-

1973 (most of West and
East Africa)
• Phase Two: roughly 1974-
1994 (mostly
Southern/Central Africa)
 Phase One---The 1960s: Optimism and
Compromise
• The first phase of decolonization was by no
means without violence, but it included many
examples of peaceful, smooth transfer of
power
• Colonial powers maintain some control over
the terms of decolonization
• Decolonization was grounded in the rhetoric of
democracy and classical liberalism
• Newly independent states looked to Japan and
Germany as models of a post-occupation boom
 Phase Two of Decolonization

• Violence was far more ubiquitous

than in the first phase of
decolonization
• Decolonization tended to be
grounded in the rhetoric of liberation
and social transformation
• Deeply enmeshed with the Cold War
 Independence
• Three major routes:
– Peaceful / Negotiated independence
• Typically achieved in non-settler colonies, ex = Ghana
– Violent
• Typically occurred in settler colonies, ex = Kenya, Algeria
– Incomplete
• White settler minority population given political power in
decolonization, ex = S. Africa
 As a imperial power,
Britain conquered
much of Africa
including Gold Coast
After WWII, Britain
allowed Africans in
Gold Coast to
participate in local
self governments
Starting in 1947,
Kwame Nkrumah
used Gandhi’s non-
violent strategy of
boycotts & strikes to
pressure Britain to
grant independence
 Non-Violent Movements

Ghana
Leader:
• Kwame Nkrumah
Goals:
• “Freedom Now” from British rule
• Pan-African Congress
Events/Methods:
• Influenced by Gandhi
• “Positive Action” movement
• Strikes and boycotts
• Civil disobedience
 Ghana & Nkrumah’s Vision

• 1st black African majority to gain independence

in 1957
Nkrumah’s Goals:
• Unify Africa politically and economically (Pan-
Africanism)
• Harness vast natural resources
• Reduce Western influence
• Positive economic influence
 Kwame Nkrumah
What is his vision?
• Unify Africa politically and
economically (Pan-Africanism)
• Harness vast natural resources in Africa
• Lessen influence of West
• Positive economic influence
 Nkrumah supported Pan-
Africanism (unity among
Africans) & hoped to create a
“United States of Africa”

After a decade of
struggle, Britain
granted Gold Coast
independence in 1957
& the nation was
renamed Ghana
Kwame Nkrumah was
elected president-for-life
& beganInan1966, Nkrumah was overthrown &
ambitious
seriesGhana struggled
of road, between military & civilian
education,
rule until
health elections were finally held in 2000
programs
 Non-Violent Movements

Ghana
Results:
• 1957 – Independence granted – 1st sub-
Saharan nation to gain independence
• Nkrumah becomes 1st Prime Minister
• Formation of Organization of African
Unity in 1963 (OAU)
Major Problems:
• Nkrumah makes himself “President for
life” in 1964
• Economic downturn – general unrest
• Overthrown by Military coup – led to
suspension of constitution and banning
of political parties
• 1992 – new constitution, multi-party
politics, elections – continued poverty
Settler Africa
 Settler Colonies
• Different obstacles met by settler vs. non-
settler colonies - what might they be? What is
the difference?
• Settler colonies in Algeria (one million) and
Kenya (40,000) pushed governments to defeat
nationalist uprisings
 Not all African independence movements
ended with democracy or without bloodshed
After gaining
independence,
Nigeria erupted in
an ethnic civil war
In Congo, a series of
civil wars weakened
the newly-formed
nation
Ethnic divisions
weakened Kenya’s
government &
led to violence &
rule by dictators
 Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements

Kenya
Leader:
• Jomo Kenyatta
Goals:
• Independence from Britain
• Wanted to unite all Kenyans,
Kikuyu and non-Kikuyu
• Get back fertile highland
farmland
 Kenya
In the 1950s the Kenyan path to independence did not go as smoothly
as it did in Ghana.

Conflict Mau Mau

• Ownership of land, possibility
of independence led to conflict
between white Kenyan
farmers, native Kikuyu people
• Farmers feared independence
would cause them to lose large
tracts of valuable cash crops in
Kenyan highlands
• Kikuyu wanted these ancestral
homelands back
• Leader of Kenya’s nationalist
movement, Jomo Kenyatta
argued for Kikuyu’s right to
land, its importance
• Many Kikuyu farmers formed
violent movement, Mau Mau
• Group terrorized highlands,
murdered anyone opposing
them, including Africans who
cooperated with white settlers
 Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements

• Presence of settlers Kenya

prevented smooth transition
of power.
• Jomo Kenyatta used non-
violent protests
• Kenya (20,000 Europeans
only) led to violent revolt.
• Mau-Mau Revolt, 1952, led
by Kikuyus suppressed by
British.
• 1963 independence granted
to black majority, led by
Kenyatta.
• What is the cartoon trying to say? What perspective
is it conveying?
Kenya
"We refused to do this work. We were fighting for our freedom. We were
not slaves. ... There were two hundred guards. One hundred seventy
stood around us with machine guns. Thirty guards were inside the
trench with us. The white man in charge blew his whistle and the guards
started beating us. They beat us from 8 am to 11.30. They were beating
us like dogs. I was covered by other bodies - just my arms and legs were
exposed. I was very lucky to survive. But the others were still being
beaten. There was no escape for them.”
 British Regain Control

British eventually regained control of colony

• British murdered, tortured members of Mau Mau movement
• Late 1950s, British convinced to accept decolonization
– 1963, Kenya became independent nation
– Jomo Kenyatta became first prime minister
 Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements

Kenya
Events/Methods:
• Clash between white settlers and Nationalists
• Harambee, “Pull Together” peaceful protest
• Mau Mau Rebels – Violent campaign
• British jailed many – Kenyatta for 7 years
Results:
• 1963 – Kenya gets Independence
• Kenyatta – First President
• Ethnic groups continued to work together
Major Problems:
• Difficulty of Ethnic diversity and Tribalism
• One party/Kikuyu domination
• Government corruption
 Violent Movements

Algeria
Leader:
• Ahmed Ben Bella
Goals:
• Independence from French Rule
• Arab Nationalism
Events/Methods:
• FLN (National Liberation Front)
• Used violence, guerilla warfare,
Terrorism, Torture
• 8 year civil war 1954-1962
 Violent Movements

Algeria
Results:
• 1962- Algeria won its
Independence
• As many as 300,000 died
Major Problems:
• Religious and ethnic conflict
• Rise of Islamic Salvation Front (FIS)
• Ethnic minority Berbers – ongoing
autonomy campaign
• Social and infrastructure problems
(unreliable electric and water supply
 Settler Colonies
• Both Kenya and Algeria uprisings would be
eventually smashed
• Weariness and new anti-colonial sentiments
lead to independence anyway
• Most French Algerians leave, most British
Kenyans stay
 Portuguese and Belgian Colonies
Transition Difficult Belgian Congo
• Transition to independence for • After World War II, Belgian
Belgian, Portuguese colonies government agreed to prepare
more difficult than for British, people of Belgian Congo for
French self-government

• Belgians, Portuguese held on to • 1950s, African nationalists in

colonies longer than any other Congo demanded immediate
European nations self-government

• Violence forced decolonization • 1960, Belgians announced

complete withdrawal; soon
violence toward Belgian
settlers, civil war erupted
Leaders Emerge in Portuguese Colonies
• Portugal continued to hold on to colonies
• Meanwhile, African leaders emerged in colonies of Angola,
Portuguese Guinea, Mozambique
• Leaders organized armies to fight for independence

Bloody Warfare in Portuguese Colonies

• Long years of bloody warfare marked last decades of Portuguese
rule
• War, military coup in Portugal drained Portuguese economy; made it
impossible to continue support of colonies
• 1974, Portugal withdrew completely from Africa
 Violent Movements

Angola
Leader:
• The Popular Movement for the Liberation of
Angola (MPLA), proclaimed the country's first
president, Dr Agostinho Neto,
Goals:
• Independence From Portugal
Events/Methods:
• 1961 – War of Independence began after
Portugal refused to give Angola self-rule
• UNITA disputed the MPLA's rule, and civil war
broke out almost immediately. With the Soviet
Union and Cuba supporting the Marxist MPLA,
and the United States and South Africa
supporting the anti-Communist UNITA, the
country became a cold war battleground.
 Violent Movements

Angola
Results:
• Up to 1.5 million lives may have been
lost - and 4 million people displaced -
in the quarter century of fighting
• 1992 – Shift to multiparty Democracy
– Free elections
Major Problems:
• Constant civil wars and violence
• Poor infrastructure and technology
• Famine due to corruption and
mismanagement of oil revenue
 Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements

Congo
Leader:
• Patrice Lumumba and
Mobutu Sese Seko
Goals:
• Gain Independence from Belgium
• Create a National Party that
represented and united the
Congo, the non-tribal Movement
National Congolais (MNC)
• Create a constitution and have
free elections
 Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements

Congo
Events/Methods:
• Anti-colonial strikes and riots led to Belgium granting
Congo Independence
• Patrice Lumumba became first legally elected Prime
Minister of the Republic of the Congo after he helped
to win its independence.
• Ten weeks later, Lumumba's government was
deposed in a coup during the Congo Crisis. He was
subsequently imprisoned and murdered under
controversial circumstances.
Results:
• 1965 – Mobutu Sese Seko takes over the nation and
rules as Military dictator for 32 years
Major Problems:
• One party state
• Government corruption – “Kleptocracy”
Results of Decolonization
 Varying Transitions of Freedom in
Africa
• For the most part, decolonization in the parts of African
that had been British and French went smoothly.
• Both Britain and France prepared their colonies for
freedom by educating native elites, allowing greater
native representation in transitional governments, and
minimizing the possibility of interethnic conflict.
• The worst transitions to independence were made by
Belgian and Portuguese colonies who had been
exploitative and did not prepare colonies for
independence.
 External Challenges
• Western investments remain
– Impact?

• Economic dependence on former colonial

powers

• Cold War (USSR v. US) struggle to spread

influence
 Internal Challenges
• Tribal allegiances
• Illiteracy / under developed education system
• No tradition of ongoing political leadership in
modern times
• Religious differences
• Diverse geography and climate
• Established social hierarchies
 Among the worst examples of violence in Africa is
the genocide (mass killings) in Rwanda & Sudan
IntoDarfur,
Link the Sudanese
video on Rwandan genocide (3.00)
gov’t killed up to 400,000
Muslims in an attempt to
destroy an anti-gov’t
rebel movement

In Rwanda, ethnic conflict

between rival clans led to the
LinkHutus massacring
to video on Darfur genocidebetween
(5.00)
500,000 & 800,000 Tutsi in 1994
 Genocide in Africa
U.N. Peacekeeping Interventions, 1945-2009
 Results of Decolonization
• Nationalist parties & African elites gain power
– Use anti-colonial legacy to maintain power &
cloud ineptitude & favoritism
• Economic dependence on West coupled with
political corruption cripples attempts to
diversify economy
– Stuck in cash crop ag & extraction of resources
 Results of Decolonization
• Initial political parties reflected ethnic,
regional, or religious groups - few true
national parties
• Power often gained by corrupt African
“strongmen” (dictators) who ignored the
social needs of people
• Large loans to modernize economies
squandered by those in power - leave little
progress, lots of debt
 Conclusions
• Decolonization was sometimes a violent
process- dependent in large part on how many
settlers had come to the colony.
• In many parts of world, decolonization was
not revolutionary. Power passed from one
class of elites to another. Little economic and
social reform occurred.
• Significant challenges faced independent
nations.
• Western economic dominance of the global
trade system continued unabated. WHY?