Cellular

Respiration
Glycolysis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A1nJRoPGkRs
Sources of
Energy
Carbohydrates
 glucose most usable source of energy
 cells turn to other fuels only if
glucose supplies have been
depleted
 stored in glycogen (animal) & starch
(plant)

Lipids (fat)
 when glucose is depleted, this becomes
Sources of
Energy
Proteins
 final resort when no energy forms of energy
are available
 cell is breaking down its own structures to
obtain energy (not good)
Cellular
Respiration
 Purpose: to breakdown stored energy
into usable energy (ATP)
 process of converting stored energy
in organic fuel into ATP

glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water +

energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6

H2O
36 ADP + 36 P  36 ATP
Types of Cellular
Respiration
 In the presence of oxygen: aerobic

 In the absence of oxygen:

anaerobic
 alcoholic fermentation (yeast)
 lactic acid fermentation (humans)
Goals of Cellular Respiration

 To break 6-carbon glucose down and

release 6 molecules of CO2

 Move glucose electrons to O2, and

combine with H+ ions to form 6
molecules of H2O

 Collect energy in the form of ATP

Cellular Respiration: What to
know!
 What is the purpose of each step?

 What TYPE of reaction is happening?

 What TYPE of enzyme is used? (not

the specific enzyme name)

 Energy distribution at each step.

Classes of
Enzymes
Enzyme Reaction Description
Phosphate group is removed (often from
Kinase Phosphorylation ATP) and attached to another molecule
Electron transfer usually from organic fuel to
Dehydrogenase Redox the electron carriers (NAD+ and FAD)
Removal of carbon usually in the form of
Decarboxylase Decarboxylation CO2. CO2 released as a waste product.

Isomerase Isomerization Producing isomers. Also known as mutase.

Splitting of a molecule or removal of a part

Lyase Cleavage
of the molecule.
Forming a molecule by combining 2 or
Synthase Synthesis
more molecules.

Hydrase Hydration Addition of water to a molecule

 An overview of cellular
respiration
Electrons Electrons carried
carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2

Oxidative
Citric phosphorylation:
Glycolsis
Glucos acid electron
Pyruvate cycle
e transport and
chemiosmosis

Cytosol
Mitochondrion

ATP ATP ATP

Substrate-level Oxidative
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
Figure 1 phosphorylation
phosphorylation
Four Major Stages of Cellular
Respiration
does not
 Glycolysis require O2
 Breaks down glucose into occurs in the
two molecules of pyruvate cytoplasm
 Oxidative Decarboxylation
 Pyruvate oxidation
 Krebs / Citric acid cycle require O2
 Completes the breakdown of occurs in the
glucose
mitochondria
 Electron Transport Chain
and Oxidative
phosphorylation
Glycolysis

Glycolysis is a set of reactions that takes place

in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
The roles of glycolysis are to produce energy
(both directly and by supplying substrate for the
citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation)
and to produce intermediates for biosynthetic
pathways.
Glycolysis

 Glyco … lysis
 “splitting of sugar”
 From 6-C sugar to two 3-C sugar
 Breaks down glucose (6C) into pyruvate
(3C)
 Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
Two major phases in
Glycolysis Glycolysis Citric
acid
cycle
Oxidative
phosphorylation

 Energy ATP ATP

ATP

investment phase Energy investment phase

 Energy payoff Glucose

phase 2 ATP + 2 P 2 ATP used

Energy payoff phase

4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP formed

2 NAD+ + 4 e- + 4 H + 2 NADH + 2 H+

2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O

Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O

4 ATP formed – 2 ATP used

2 ATP + 2 H+

Figure 2 2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H + 2 NADH

Energy Investment
Phase
CH2OH
H H Citric
H
H Glycolysis acid Oxidative
HO OH cyclephosphorylation
HO
H OH
Glucose

ATP 1

Hexokinase
ADP

CH2OH P
O H
H H
H
HO OH
H OH
Glucose-6-phosphate
2
Phosphoglucoisomerase
CH2O P
O CH2OH
H HO
H HO

HO H
Fructose-6-phosphate
3
ATP
Phosphofructokinase

ADP

P O CH2 O CH2 O P HO
H OH
HO H
Fructose-
1, 6-bisphosphate
4
Aldolase

5 H
P O CH2 Isomerase
CO
CO
CHOH
CH2OH CH 2O P
Glyceraldehyde-
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
3-phosphate
Figure 3
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 1:
 carbon 6 phosphorylated
using ATP to prevent glucose
from leaving the cell

 reaction type:
phosphorylation

 enzyme: kinase

 energy: absorbed
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 2:
 atoms of molecule
are rearranged

 reaction
type:
isomerization

 enzyme:
isomerase
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 3:
 carbon 1 phosphorylated
to cause the molecule
to be energetically
unstable

 reaction type:
phosphorylatio
n

 enzyme: kinase

 energy:
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 4:
 the unstable
molecule is split into
two molecules

 reaction
type:
cleavage

 enzyme: lyase

 energy: equilibrium
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 5:
 Dihydroxyacetone (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-
3- phosphate (G3P) are isomers
 Only G3P continues in glycolysis
 G3P is used in many other metabolic pathways

 reaction type: isomerization

 enzyme: isomerase
 energy: equilibrium
Energy Payoff
Phase
6
2 NAD+ Triose phosphate
dehydrogenase
2 NADH 2Pi
+ 2 H+
2
POC O
CHOH

CH2 O P
1, 3-2 ADP
7
Bisphosphoglycerat
e Phosphoglycerokinase
2 ATP

2 O–

C
CHOH
CH2 O
P
3-
Phosphoglyce
rate
2 O–
8
P
C O
h
HCH OH
C 2OoP
2-Phosphoglycerate
s
9
p
2 H2O Enolase
h
2 O –
o
gl
C O
y P
CHO2 c
C
er
Phosphoenolpyruvate
2 ADP 10o
m
Pyruvate kinase
ut
2 ATP
a
2
s
O–
e
C O
C
CH3O
Figure 4 Pyruvate
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 6:
 NADH (energy
molecule) is created

 reactiontype: redox and

phosphorylation
 enzyme:
dehydrogenase
 energy: released
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Dehydrogenase functions:
 Transfers electrons from G3P
to the oxidizing agent
NAD+ to form NADH
 Uses energy from exergonic
transfer of electrons to add a
phosphate from the cytosol
to the oxidized G3P to form
1, 3- Bisphosphoglycerate
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 7:
 ADP phosphorylation
to create ATP

 reaction type: substrate-

level phosphorylation

 enzyme: kinase

 energy: released
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 8:
 phosphate moved
from carbon 3 to
carbon 2

 reaction
type:
isomerization

 enzyme:
isomerase
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 9:
 water removed to
set up next reaction

 reaction
type:
dehydration

 enzyme:
lyase
Glycolysis: Step by
Step
Step 10:
 ADP phosphorylation
to ATP

 reaction type: substrate-

level phosphorylation

 enzyme: kinase

 energy: released
Glycolysis
Summary
 glucose  2
pyruvate

 net 2 ATP
molecules
produced
 2 used; 4 generated

 2 NADH
molecules
Glycolysis
 Pyruvate Juncture in
Catabolism Glucose

 Pyruvate will CYTOSOL

Pyruvate
continue to the No O2 present O2 present

Kreb cycle and the

Fermentation Cellular respiration

ETC to synthesize
ATP only in the
MITOCHONDRION
Ethanol Acetyl CoA
or
presence of O2 lactate
Citric
acid
cycle

Figure 9.18
 Anaerobic
Respiration Glucose
 Anaerobic
conditions: without CYTOSOL

oxygen Pyruvate
No O2 present O2 present
 Cells can only utilize Fermentation Cellular respiration

glycolysis to make
ATP MITOCHONDRION

 Cells without Ethanol

or
Acetyl CoA

mitochondria can lactate

Citric
acid
only utilize glycolysis cycle

 Glycolysis couples with

fermentation to
Figure 9.18
Regulation of Glycolysis
 Glycolysis Regulation

Regulation

Allosteric Hormonal
e.g., Insulin, glucagon
(phosphorylation/dephosphorylation)
Glycolysis Regulation
 Regulation of
Hexokinase;step#1

• Hexokinase catalyzed phosphorylation of

glucose is the first irreversible step of glycolysis

• Regulated only by excess glucose-6-

phosphate. If G6P accumulates in the cell,
there is feedback inhibition of hexokinase till
the G6P is consumed. This is allosteric
regulation
 Regulation of
Hexokinase;step#1
• In Hormonal regulation Insulin goes to
nucleus and activate the gene for
hexokinase and glucokinase formation,
that cause to activate glycolysis
• Glucagon will inhibit the synthesis of
Hexokinase so, glycolysis will negatively
regulated by glucagon
 Regulation of
Hexokinase;step#1
 Regulation of
Phosphofructokinase; step #3
• This is the rate-limiting step of glycolysis.
• Subject to the greatest degree of regulation by
allosteric effectors.
Positive effectors:
• Pi and AMP are positive effectors of PFK-1.
• AMP is a negative effector of F1,6BPase, which
catalyzes the reverse reaction, converting F1,
6BP into F6P and Pi.
• Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. This is a positive
effector of PFK-1 and a negative effector of
F1,6BPase.
 Regulation of
Phosphofructokinase; step #3
Negative effectors.
• ATP: ATP is an allosteric inhibitor of PFK-1.
• Citrate: an intermediate in citric acid cycle, is an
allosteric inhibitor of PFK-1. When the citric acid
cycle is saturated with high levels of citrate,
citrate leaves mitochondria via a transporter
(tricarboxylate transporter) and inhibits PFK-1.
This prevents generation of pyruvate, which
feeds into citric acid cycle.
 Regulation of
Phosphofructokinase; step #3
 Regulation of
Phosphofructokinase; step #3
 Regulation of Pyruvate
kinase; step# 10
• Inhibited by high concentrations of ATP.
• Activated by fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
• Liver enzyme is subject to phosphorylation.
a. Active in the dephosphorylated state.
b. Inactive in the phosphorylated state.
• Inactivation by phosphorylation is a function of
cAMP-dependent protein kinase in liver.
• Enzyme is inducible by high carbohydrate
concentration and also high insulin levels
Regulation of Pyruvate
kinase; step# 10