Preservation of meat and poultry

Dr. R. K. Jaiswal
Asstt. Prof.-cum-Jr. Scientist
Dept. of Livestock Products Technology
Bihar Veterinary College
Bihar Animal Sciences University
Patna-800014 (Bihar)
Principles of Preservation of Meat
• Practiced since time
immemorial 
• Times of plenty to tide
over scarcity
• Primary purpose: prevent
spoilage
• Accomplished through
unfavourable immediate micro-
environment
• Initiated by drying meat
 Methods of Preservation of Meat

Direct Microbial Inhibition

• Drying • Preservation by • Irradiation

Temperature Control
• Intermediate Low • Antibiotics
Moisture Control

Moisture Foods Temperature • Chemicals

• Freeze Drying • Chilling
or • Freezing
Lyophilisation • Preservation by
• Salting High
• Curing and Temperature
smoking • Canning
• Retort
Processing
 Drying
• At present  drying plays only  a minor role in preservation of
meat on a commercial scale.
Product
          Country of Origin
Jerkey South America
Pemmican North America
Biltong South Africa
Charque Uruguay and Brazil
Odka Somalia and other East African
countries 
Qwanta Ethiopia and other East African
countries 
Kilishi Nigeria and some of the West African
countries
Pastrima Turkey, Egypt and Armenia
 Freeze drying or Lyophilization
• Process of removing water from frozen foods
• Removal of water is accomplished by sublimation, i.e., the
water in the frozen meat evaporates without melting of ice.
• Frozen meat is subjected to controlled vacuum and
temperature conditions.
• Food product must be in comminuted form and packaging
must be completely moisture.
• Preserve beef, pork, chicken, shellfish, whole steaks and
chops.
• Expensive to preserve meat (high moisture) by lyophilization.
• Advantages are shrinkage and distortion of shape are very
minimal, and retention of flavour and nutrition is excellent.
 Intermediate moisture
meat products
• Sundried meat had meager dehydration capacity resulting in
poor juiciness and texture.
• Later studies revealed that meat products with 20-50%
moisture had moderate juiciness and texture on rehydration.
• Such products were resistant to bacteriological spoilage and
could be held without refrigeration. Referred as IMM.
• Stability is due to reduced availability of water to the
microorganisms (water activity: 0.6 to 0.85) .
• Special significance where refrigeration facilities are not
always available.
• Helpful for Defense expeditions and stress situations
 Humectants

• Various additives employed for lowering the water activity of

foods are known as humectants.
• Some of the most commonly used humectants are:
– Glycerol
– Propylene glycol
– Sodium chloride
– Polyhydric alcohols (e.g. sorbitol)
– Sugars (e.g. sucrose, dextrose, corn syrup etc)
• Low molecular weight compounds and easily soluble in water.
• Chemically inert and do not modify normal sensory qualities.
 Salting
• Very ancient method of preservation
• Process of applying dry salt on the surface of meat and
rubbing it to extend the shelf life of meat.
• When dry salt is applied, salt dissolves in the meat fluid near
the surface and further withdraws fluid from the meat.
• It then passes slowly inward, dissolves throughout the meat
substance .
• Thus salt has no harmful effects on the bacteria.
• Higher concentration of salt gives greater preservative action.
• Principle involved in applying salt is dehydration and
germicidal.
 Curing
• Addition of salt, sugar and nitrate or nitrite to the meat, which
results in conversion of the meat pigments into the
characteristic cured meat pigments imparting the
characteristic cured meat colour and production of
characteristic meat flavour.
• The process of meat curing is currently valued as a means of
 imparting organoleptic qualities to the cured products,
 though it originally was introduced as a means of preserving
meat.
• Due to the advent of efficient and widespread refrigeration
the need for preserving meat by curing alone has reduced.
 Curing Ingredients

– Sodium chloride
– Sodium or potassium nitrate
– Sodium nitrite 
– Monosodium glutamate
– Sugar
– Acetic acid
– Vinegar
– Spices
 Salt
– Acts by dehydration and alteration of osmotic pressure so
that it inhibits bacterial growth and subsequent spoilage.
– Ionizes to yield the chlorine, which is harmful to the
organisms.
– Sensitizes the cells against CO2.
– Interferes with the proteolytic enzyme action.
– Effectiveness of sodium chloride varies directly with its
concentration and storage temperature.
– Acceptable level of salts in hams has been reported to be
about 3% and about 2% for bacon.
 Sugar

– Sugar softens the products by counteracting the harsh and

hardening effects of salt.
– It interacts with amino groups of the proteins and upon
cooking, forms browning of the products, which enhances
the flavour of the cured meats.
– Sugar substitutes have been used in bacon cures to
prevent excessive browning during cooking.
– It acts as a preservative by dehydration.
 Nitrates and Nitrites

– Nitrates and nitrites bring about the desired pink colour

development – nitrosyl hemochromogen.
– Nitrate raise the oxidation-reduction potential and
therefore are more favourable to aerobic than anaerobic
organisms.
– Inhibit the growth of food poisoning and spoilage
organisms.
– Effective in preventing the growth of Clostridium
botulinum organism.
– Retards development of rancidity.
– Nitrate or nitrite alone or in combination of both shall not
be more than 200 ppm in finished products as it is toxic.
 Development of cured pink colour
NaNO3  NaNO2  HONO  NO
Sodium nitrate Sodium nitrite Nitrous acid Nitric oxide
 Myoglobin +Nitric oxideNitric oxide myoglobin Nitrosyl hemochromogen
(purplish red) (red) (pink in colour)

Nitrosamine
• The reaction of nitrous acid with secondary amides
produces nitrosamine.
• It is demonstrated that nitrosamine are carcinogenic
compounds.
• They have been isolated from cured meats in a few
instances.
• Work is now underway to determine the factor that controls
their formation, but the final answer is not available.
Different methods of curing
Dry curing (dry salt cure, Conventional
dry cure)
Curing with liquid
Combination curing (Thermal or hot
cures)

Curing with liquid

Injection curing
Artery pumping
Stitch pumping (Pump pickling)
Machine pumping (Multiple needles pumping)
 Phosphates

– Alkaline phosphates are used to increase the water binding

capacity and thereby the yield of the finished product.
– Decrease the amount of shrinkage in smoked products when
cooked.
– To reduce the degree of purge or cook-out in canned product.
– Legal limits for added residual phosphates are set at 0.5% in
the finished products.
– Approved phosphates are
• Sodium tripolyphosphate
• Sodium hexa metaphosphate
• Sodium acid pyrophosphate
• Disodium phosphate
 Ascorbic Acid/ Ascorbates
– Causes reduction of metmyoglobin to myoglobin, thereby
accelerating the rate of curing.
– React with nitrites to increase the yield of nitric oxide from
nitrous acid.
– Excess ascorbate acts as antioxidant, thereby stabilising
both colour and flavour.
– Antioxidant properties of ascorbate not only prevent
development of rancidity but also prevent fading of colour
of sliced meats upon exposure to light.
 Monosodium glutamate (MSG)

– It has been used in a number of products to enhance the

flavour.
– Related with umami flavour (fifth taste).
– There is little advantage of its use in cured meat products.
– Added at 0.1% level.  
– Causes Chinese Restaurant Syndrome (CRS)
 Smoking
• Smoking is done in addition to curing.
• Cured products are placed in airtight smoke house with heat
and smoke simultaneously applied.
• Hard wood logs and saw dusts are used to generate smoke.
• Kind of wood varies from country to country depending upon
the availability and practice.
• Smoking gives the products a characteristic colour and flavour.
• Smoking process extends for 3 days at a temperature of 85°F
(29.5°C).
• It retards fat oxidation.
• Reduction of water content as well as the deposition of
components has bacteriostatic effects.
 Purpose of Smoking
– Improved shelf life
– Development of
desirable organoleptic
characteristics such as
flavour and colour .
– Protection of fat from
oxidation.
– Creation of newer
product.
 Composition of smoke
• Phenols – act as antioxidant, have bacteriostatic effect,
contribute to smoky flavour and aroma, responsible for surface
sheen.
• Aldehydes – contribute colour and have bactericidal effect.
• Alcohols – have bactericidal effect.
• Organic acids – have antimicrobial effect and accelerate cure
reaction.
• Cabonyls – contribute to smoky colour and browning.
• Hydrocarbons – contribute to undesirable compounds such as
benzopyrene and effect colour and flavour.
• Gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxygen, nitrous
oxide etc. - contribute to formation of undesirable compounds
such as nitrosamines, also contribute to colour.
 Types of fuel used
• Most commercial smoking operations have been using
sawdust, which is easier to utilize and gives a greater volume
of smoke.
• Hard woods have been reported to be the best for smoking
e.g.  sawdust of hickory, maple, oak , cherry and pecan
• However, liquid smoke has been produced satisfactorily from
both hard and softwood with excellent results.

Methods of Smoking
1. Natural air circulation
2. Air-conditioned smoke house
3. Continuous smoke house
 Liquid smoke

• Does not contain any carcinogenic or harmful substance.

• Less time is required in preparation of product.
• Minimum variation occurs in different batches because
composition of liquid smoke is constant.
• Easy to apply.
• No air pollution occurs in the processing premises as it does
not require installation of smoke generator or smoke oven.
Application of liquid smoke
• It is generally spread on the product just before cooking.
• Smoke solutions are diluted with water or frequently with
vinegar or citric acid.
Composition of liquid smoke
• 20 – 30 parts of liquid smoke
• 5 parts citric acid or vinegar
• 65 - 70 parts of water
• Citric acid or vinegar is used to enhance the skin formation on
skinless frankfurters.
 Chilling/Refrigeration
• Most widely used method for short term storage of meat.
• Slows down microbial growth and enzymatic as well as
chemical reactions.
• Storage of fresh meat is done at refrigeration temperature of 2-
5°C.
• Refrigeration of meat begins with chilling of animal carcasses
and continues till ultimate use.
• Relative humidity kept at 90%.
• Carcasses are first held in chill coolers (15°C) to remove their
body heat and then passed on to holding coolers (5°C).
• Pork and poultry start with a comparatively high microbial load.
• Refrigerated storage life of meat is influenced by species of
origin, initial microbial load, packaging, temperature and
humidity.
• Favours growth of psychrophillic organisms causing spoilage .
• Fresh meat has shelf life of 5-7 days at refrigerated
temperature of 4±1°C.
• Processed meat products are also stored under refrigeration
till these are finally consumed.
• These meat products are less perishable as compared
to fresh meat.
 Physical changes in chilled meat
• Shrinkage: loss of weight occurs as a result of evaporation of
water from meat surface; carcass cut into quarters dissipate
water vapour rapidly and continuously and retail joints even
more so.

• Sweating: Denotes condensation of water vapour on meat

brought from a cold store into ordinary room temperature.

• Loss of bloom: Bloom is defined as the colour and general

appearance of the carcass surface when viewed through the
semitransparent layer of connective tissue, muscle and fat,
which form the carcass surface.
 Cold shortening
• Undesirable change associated with quick chilling
• Noticed when pre-rigor muscles, were subjected to a
temperature of below 10°C, in which the meat is very tough
due to extreme contraction.
• Thus a pH of above 6.2 and presence of ATP is a pre-requisite
for cold shortening to occur.
• Occurs due to the inability of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to
sequester Ca⁺⁺ at low temperatures (0°C-5°C) and a decreased
binding ability of mitochondria to bind Ca⁺⁺.
• Prevented by the use of electrical stimulation, which advances
the onset of rigor, tender-stretch method of suspending
carcasses and by ageing.
 Freezing
• Freezing is a method of choice for the long term preservation
of meat.
• It stops the microbial growth and retards the action of
enzymes.
• It has the advantage of retaining most of the nutritive
value of meat during storage, although a very little loss of
nutrients does occur in the drip during thawing process.
• Since drip is not possible in cooked meat products, proper
freezing conditions result in retention of most of the
nutritional and sensory properties.
• It is utmost important to wrap fresh meat in suitable
packaging film before freezing, otherwise meat undergoes
freezer burn.
• Freezer Burn: Abnormal condition occurs due to progressive
surface dehydration resulting in the concentration of meat
pigments on the surface.
• This discolouration in frozen meat due to sublimations of ice
crystals, is irreversible condition.
• On cooking, freezer burn meat is quite tough
and lack juiciness.
Slow Freezing Vs. Quick Freezing
Types of freezing
 Types of freezer

1. Plate type freezers: meat is placed in trays which remain

direct contact with metal freezer plates. A temperature of -10°C
or so is achieved.

2. Blast type freezers: used in large meat plants.

Such freezers render fast freezing of meat products due to rapid
air movement. A temperature range of -10 to -30°C is generally
achieved.
Undesirable changes in freezer storage of meat

Freezer burn
• Freezer burn is an extension of  surface desiccation associated
with freezing.
• It occurs on the outer surface of imported frozen offals, like
kidneys livers.
• Freezer burn is attributed to loss of moisture from the outer
tissues; it may be seen where a carcass is stored close to opening
of a cold air duct.
• The meat or offals have a brown withered discolouration.
• Storage temperature influences both the rate of desiccation and
the development of freezer burn. This can be prevented by using
suitable packaging.
Bone darkening
• Bone darkening is a condition, which develops when young
poultry is frozen and thawed.
• Organoleptic properties of the muscle are not affected, but
the brown to black appearance of the long bones and the
surrounding muscles results from leaching of haemoglobin
out of the bone marrow.
• Subsequent oxidation of the red haemoglobin to
methaemoglobin produces the dark colour.
• Bone darkening is a problem only in young birds for two
reasons.
– First, more haemoglobin is present in the bone marrow of
young, rapidly growing birds.
– Secondly, incomplete calcification of the bones allows the
haemoglobin to escape from the marrow cavity.
Thaw rigor
• When prerigor meat is frozen, a severe type of rigor mortis
ensues during thawing.
• The shortening so produced may be 60 to 80% of the original
length of the unrestrained muscle.
• Although shortening is less in a muscle attached to skeleton,
the condition results in tough meat and heavy drip losses.  
 Canning
• Process of preservation achieved by thermal sterilisation of a
product held in hermetically sealed containers.
• Preserves the sensory attributes such as appearance, flavour
and texture of the meat products to a large extent.
• Canned meat products have a shelf life of atleast 2 years at
ambient temperature.
• Canning has been in vogue for about 200 years now, since the
French Biochemist, Nicholas Appert, in 1809
• In 1810, an English man, Peter Durrand, conceived and
patented the idea of using tin cans instead of glass containers.
• Boston and Thomas Kensette began using tins as cans in 1819
in New York.
 Steps in canning
i. Preparation of meat and
gravy
ii. Precooking
iii. Filling
iv. Exhausting
v. Seaming
vi. Retorting or thermal
processing
vii. Cooling
viii. Storage
Aseptic Canning
– The food is sterilized at 120°C for 6 sec to 6 min, depending on
the food, before it enters a sterilized can, which is then closed
with a sterilized lid.
– This method is said to improve the flavour and the vitamin
content.
Retort Processing
– Flexible pouches made from laminates of thermoplastic and
aluminium foil are used
– Not withstand the high internal pressure developed during
processing
– Sterilized in media (water or steam and air) capable of providing
an external pressure sufficient to balance the internal one.
 Radiation preservation of meat
1. Ionising radiations: high speed electrons, X-rays, gamma
particles (cobalt 60, cesium 137).
• Capable of killing microorganism on meat without significantly
raising the temperature (cold sterilisation).
• Amount of radiation energy absorbed by meat is expressed in
rads (or) gray which is equal to 100 rads.
• A mega rad is a million rads or 10,000 Gray or 10 kGy.
• A dosage of about 4.5 megarads or 45 kGy is considered to be
capable of sterilising products to a state where they can be
stored without refrigerated storage.
• Radiation preservation may be classified as Radappertisation,
Radurization and Radicidation in the decreasing order of
dosage.
• Radappertisation, which brings about sterility in meat,
 involves the application of radiation in the range 0f 20 -30
kGy (radiation sterilisation).
• It is oftern associated with development of unpleasant
odours, flavors and off colours (Wet Dog Hair odour).
• Beef is particularly liable to such changes while pork and
poultry less so.
• Radurization (radiation pasteurisation): uses doses less than
that required for sterilisation, typically in the range 1- 10 kGy,
as this dosage is sufficient to kill many spoilage organisms and
thus can extend shelf life of meat under refrigeration
significantly.
• Radicidation is a process in which doses less than 1kGy are
employed to increase shelf life, prevent sprouting in
vegetables and for rendering pork free of Trichinella spiralis.
2. Non-ionizing radiation
• Microwave and infrared rays have wavelength greater than
visible lights are capable of generation of heat in
the irradiated object and thus impart preservative effect.
• Ultra violet rays  when absorbed by micro-organisms is lethal
to them and thus germicidal.
 Chemical preservation
• There are many chemicals, which prevent microbial growth in
foods and act as preservatives.
• Several organic acids have been Generally Recognized As Safe
(GRAS) for use as chemical preservatives.
• Apart from nitrate, nitrite, sorbic, acid and tetracyclines.
• U.K. preservatives in food regulations act , 1962 lists only
seven, namely sulphur-di-oxide, propionic acid, benzoic acid,
methyl-p-hydroxy-benzoate, ethyl-p-hydroxy-benzoate,
diphenyl, O-phenylphenol and copper carbonate,
• Of these seven, only sulphur di-oxide is permitted in meat
preservation up to 450 ppm being in sausage and sausage meat.
 Preservation by use of antibiotics
• The antibiotics when used in the required concentration
impart no flavour or odour to the meat and do not discolour
the product, while most of them are considered relatively
harmless to humans.
• Broad-spectrum antibiotics such as Chlortetracycline,
Oxytetracycline and Chloramphenicol are commonly used.
• Infusion of beef carcasses with tetracycline antibiotics seems
to have improved their keeping quality and retarded internal
spoilage.
• However, preservation of foods using antibiotics has been
banned in many countries due to public health concern.