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2 September 2021 Gangguan Keseimbangan Asam Basa 2021, Pelatihan Perawat Dialisis (EDITED)
2 September 2021 Gangguan Keseimbangan Asam Basa 2021, Pelatihan Perawat Dialisis (EDITED)
Buku rujukan 1
Buku Rujukan 2
Buffering
• Ability of solution containing a weak or poorly
dissociated acid and its anion (a base) to resist
change in pH when strong acid (i.e highly
dissociated acid) or alkali is added.
• In human body: carbonic acid and bicarbinate
Modeling Acid-Base Relations
• Traditional model.
• Stewart model
• Modified Stewart model
Traditional model.
The equilibrium reaction of carbon dioxide and water expressed by the
Henderson -Hasselbach (linear form equation) :
•[H+] = 24(PCO2)/[HCO3-]
•pH = pK’a + log [HCO3-]
PaCO2
•Where:
•[H+] is hydrogen ion concentration (40 nM/l);
•PCO2 is partial pressure of carbon dioxide (40 Torr); and
•[HCO3-] is bicarbonate ion concentration (24 mM/1).
•However, phosphate and proteins that contain histidine residues, like
hemoglobin, also act as buffers within the body
•SiggaardAndersen introduced the concept of "base excess," the amount of
bicarbonate required to return plasma pH to 7.4 under standard conditions in
vitro.
•Other modifications such as the concept of "anion gap".
Primary alter in Altered by renal
metabolic compensation for
acidosis respiratory
disorders
Metabolic component
pH = pK’a + log [HCO3 ]
-
PaCO2
Respiratory component
Altered by
respiratory
Primarily
compensation Fig 1. Interacting effect of a
altered in primary acid-base disturbances and
for metabolic
respiratory
disorders secondary mechanism on pH (from
disorders
modified from Henderson -
Hasselbach equation)
Six step method to identify and treatment of acid-base
disturbances
Metabolic component
pH = pK’a + log [HCO3 ]
-
PaCO2
Respiratory component
Altered by
respiratory
Primarily
compensation Fig 1. Interacting effect of a
altered in primary acid-base disturbances and
for metabolic
respiratory
disorders secondary mechanism on pH (from
disorders
modified from Henderson -
Hasselbach equation)
Respiratory Acidosis
Metabolic component
pH = pK’a + log [HCO3 ]
-
PaCO2
Respiratory component
Altered by
respiratory
Primarily
compensation Fig 1. Interacting effect of a
altered in primary acid-base disturbances and
for metabolic
respiratory
disorders secondary mechanism on pH (from
disorders
modified from Henderson -
Hasselbach equation)
Respiratory Alkalosis
Metabolic component
pH = pK’a + log [HCO3 ]
-
PaCO2
Respiratory component
Altered by
respiratory
Primarily
compensation Fig 1. Interacting effect of a
altered in primary acid-base disturbances and
for metabolic
respiratory
disorders secondary mechanism on pH (from
disorders
modified from Henderson -
Hasselbach equation)
• Metabolic acidosis is the acid-base
disturbance initiated by a decrease plasma
([HCO-3]).
• This stimulates alveolar ventilation and
leads to the secondary hypocapnia
characteristic of the disorder. Stable
metabolic acidosis indicate a roughly
linear relationship between ([HCO-3]) and
(PaCO2).
• The slope approximately 1.2 mm Hg per
mEq/L decrease in plasma bicarbonate
concentration.
• Such empiric observations have been
used for construction of 95% confidence
intervals for graded degrees of metabolic
acidosis, represented by the area in color
in the acid-base template [3].
• Values falling within the area in color are
consistent with simple metabolic acidosis.
Acid-base values falling outside the area
in color denote the presence of a mixed
acid-base disturbance [4].
Metabolic acidosis
Sign and symtoms
Cardiovascular system:
•Reductions in cardiac output, arterial blood
pressure, and hepaticand renal blood flow can
occur and life threatening arrhythmias can develop.
Skeletal abnormalities:
•Chronic acidemia, can cause calcium dissolution
from the bone mineral and consequent .
• Assessment of the plasma unmeasured anion
concentration (anion gap) is a very useful first
step in approaching the differential diagnosis of
unexplained metabolic acidosis.
• The plasma anion gap is the difference between
the Na and the sum of Cl and HCO3-
concentrations. Under normal circumstances,
the plasma anion gap is primarily composed of
the net negative charges of plasma proteins,
predominantly albumin, and other organic and
inorganic anions. The normal value of the
plasma anion gap is 12 ± 4 (mean ± 2 SD)
mEq/L.
• In one pattern of metabolic acidosis, the
decrease in bicarbonate concentration is offset
by an increase in the concentration of chloride,
with the plasma anion gap remaining normal.
• In the other pattern, the decrease in bicarbonate
is balanced by an increase in the concentration
of unmeasured anions with the plasma
chloride concentration remaining normal.
Primary alter in Altered by renal
metabolic compensation for
acidosis respiratory
disorders
Metabolic component
pH = pK’a + log [HCO3 ]
-
PaCO2
Respiratory component
Altered by
respiratory
Primarily
compensation Fig 1. Interacting effect of a
altered in primary acid-base disturbances and
for metabolic
respiratory
disorders secondary mechanism on pH (from
disorders
modified from Henderson -
Hasselbach equation)
• Hypoxia-induced lactic acidosis.
Accumulation of lactate during
hypoxia, originates from impaired
mitochondrial oxidative function
that reduces the availability ATP and
NAD+ (oxidized nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide) within the
cytosol accumulation of pyruvate
stimulates 6-phosphofructokinase
(PFK), thereby accelerating
glycolysis.
• Thus, lactate accumulation can be
viewed as the toll paid by the
organism to maintain energy
production during anaerobiosis
(hypoxia) [14]. TCA cycle—
tricarboxylic acid cycle.
• In type A, clinical evidence
exists of impaired tissue
oxygenation.
• In type B, no such evidence
is apparent.
• Occasionally,the distinction
between the two types may
be less than obvious.
• Most cases of lactic acidosis
are caused by tissue
hypoxia arising from
circulatory failure [14,15].
Lactic acidosis management.
• Securing adequate tissue oxygenation
and on aggressively identifying and
treating the underlying cause or
predisposing condition. Monitoring
hemodynamics, oxygenation, and acid-
base status.
• Administration of sodium bicarbonate,
given as an infusion rather than abolus.
Alkali administration should be
regarded as a temporizing maneuver
adjunctive to cause-specific measures.
• Maintaining adequate fluid balance,
optimizing cardiorespiratory function,
managing infection, and using drugs
that predispose to the disorder
cautiously.
• Preventing the development of lactic
acidosis is all the more important in
patients at special risk for developing
it, such as those with diabetes mellitus
or advanced cardiac, respiratory, renal,
or hepatic disease.
• Administration of insulin is the cornerstone.
• Replacement of the prevailing water, sodium, and potassium deficits is also
required. Alkali are administered only under certain circumstances in DKA
and virtually never in NKH, in which ketoacidosis is generally absent.
• Because the fluid deficit is generally severe in patients with NKH, many of
whom have preexisting heart disease and are relatively old, safe fluid
replacement may require monitoring of CVP, PCWP, or both.
Primary alter in Altered by renal
metabolic compensation for
acidosis respiratory
disorders
Metabolic component
pH = pK’a + log [HCO3 ]
-
PaCO2
Respiratory component
Altered by
respiratory
Primarily
compensation Fig 1. Interacting effect of a
altered in primary acid-base disturbances and
for metabolic
respiratory
disorders secondary mechanism on pH (from
disorders
modified from Henderson -
Hasselbach equation)
Renal tubular acidosis
Orang Bayi
dewasa normal
50-60% 70-75%
dari BB dari BB
Seblum
pubertas
60-70%
dari BB
Siregar P. Gangguan Keseimbangan Air dan Elektrolit. Buku Ajar Ilmu Penyakit Dalam. Jilid 2. Edisi VI. 2014. hal: 2242
GANGGUAN KESEIMBANGAN AIR
Osmolalitas: perbandingan antara jumlah solute dalam mmol/L dan air dalam
kgH2O
Natrium, kalium, dan glukosa disebut sebagai solut atau osmol yang efektif, kareena mempengauhi
tekanan osmotic. Makin tinggi osmolalitas solute efektif, maka makin tinggi tekanan osmotik
Urea mempengaruhi osmolalitas akan tetapi tidak berpengaruh terhadap tekanan osmotic karena urea
memiliki kemampuan untuk menembus membran sel (lipid soluble) ineffective-osmole
Pharmaceutical Calculations”, 13th Edition by Howard C. Anse l.
GANGGUAN KESEIMBANGAN AIR
Hipovolem
Dehidrasi ia
Hipervole
mia
Edema
Dehidrasi
Asim M et al. Misconceptions of dehydration and volume depletion. World J Nephrol 2019 January 21; 8(1): 23-32
HIPOVOLEMIA DAN HIPERVOLEMIA
• \
S Kumar, T Berl: Diseases of water metabolism, in Atlas of Diseases of the Kidney, RW Schrier [ed]. Philadelphia, Current Medicine, Inc, 1999
EDEMA
Edema : pembengkakan
yang dapat diraba akibat
penambahan volume cairan
interstisium.
Perubahan hemodinamik
dalam kapiler yang
memungkinkan keluarnya Retensi natrium di ginjal
cairan intravascular ke dalam
jaringan interstinum
Maka jumlah natrium tubuh akan meningkat oleh adanya retensi natrium ginjal
akibat peninglatan system renin angiotensin aldosterone.
Retensi Na retensi air di ekstrasel sehingga terjadi penimbunan air khususnya di
interstisium yang akhirnya menimbulkan edema umum.
Manifestasi klinis edema
Edema Edema
paru perifer
edema
asites unilateral
PENATALAKSANAAN
KESEIMBANGAN CAIRAN
HIPOVOLEMIA
• Menangulangi penyakit dasar
• Mengganti cairan yang hilang
HIPONATRIUM HIPOKALEMIA
HIPERNATRIUM HIPERKALEMIA
HIPOKALSEMIA HIPOMAGNESIA
HIPERKALSEMIA HIPERMAGNESIA
GANGGUAN KESEIMBANGAN NATRIUM
Renal physiology. First Aid for the UMSLE step 1. 2017 . Page 526-538
HIPONATREMIA
Volume sirkulasi
efektif turun Volume sirkulasi
• Na keluar berlebihan dari tubuh. efekti tidak turun
1. Melallui ginjal : diuetik akut, renal sat 1. SIADH (Syndrome Inappropriat of
wasting, muntah akut, hipoaldosteronm ADH secretion)
2. Melalui non ginjal : diare dan muntah lama
• Peningkatan volum air bebas elektrolit
2. Adrenal insufisiensi
(hypervolemia) 3. Hipotioidism
1. Gagal jantung
2. Siosis hati
3. Hipoalbuminemia
Hiponatremia berdasarkan waktu :
Akut Kronis
Terapi : Terapi :
• Koreksi cepat dengan larutan natrium • Koreksi dilakukan perlahan yaitu sebesar
hipertonik iv 0.5 meq/L setiap 1 jam, maksimal
• Na plasma dinaikan 5meq/L dari Na awal 10meq/L dalam 24 jam
dalam 1 jam dinaikan 1meq/L sampai • Larutan natrium hipertonik iv atau oral
mencapai kadar Na darah 130meq/L
• Jumlah Na dalam larutan natrium
hipertonik = 0,5 x BB (kg) x delta Na
(selisih kadar Na yang diinginkan dengan
Na awal)
HIPERNATREMIA
Penyebab
yang berlebihan melalui saluran
cerna/ginjal/keringat, kalium masuk ke
dalam sel (translokasi)
Diagnostik
kalium kurang, translokasi kalium dari
ekstrasel ke intrasel, khilangan kalium melalui
gastrointestinal atau penggunaan diuretic.
Ratio kalium dan kreatinin urin sewaktu >
13meq/g kreatinin menunjukan pengeluran K
berlebih di ginjal
• TTKG (transtubula potassium concentration
gradient) estimasi kadar K dalam cairan
tubulus (akhir ductus koligentes bagian
kortikal)
HIPOKALEMIA
Segera diberikan pada : Kalium diberikan dalam waktu Pemberian kalium tidak perlu
• Pasien sedang pengobatan tidak terlalu lama : segera
digitalis • Insufisiensi koroner/iskemik • Hipokalemia ringan (K 3-3,5
• Pasien dengan KAD otot jantung meq/L)
• Pasien dengan kelemahan • Ensefalopati hepatikum
otot pernafasan • Pasien memakai obat yang
• Hipokalemia berat ( < 2 menyebablan perpindahan
meq/L) kalium dari ektasel ke intrasel
HIPERKALEMIA (K plasma > 5 meq/L)
Penyebab Gejala klinis
• Keluarnya K dari intrasel ke ekstrasel • Gejala akibat gangguan konduksi
(asidosis metabolic, defisiensi listrik jantung
insulin, katabolisme jaringan • Kelemahan otot sampai dengan
meningkat, pemakaian obat paralisis sehingga pasien merasa
penghambat β adrengik, sesak napas
pseudohiperkalemia akibat
pengambilan sample) Gejalan timbul pada kadar K > 7meq/L
• Berkurangnya eksresi K melalui ginjal atau kenaikan yang terjadi dalam waktu
(hipoaldosteronisme, gagal ginjal, cepat
deplesi volume sirkulasi efektif,
pemakaian siklosporin)
Penatalaksanaan Hiperkalemia
Hipoparatiroidisme
Pseudohipoparatiroidisme
Etiologi
Proses keganasan
Hiperfosatemia
HIPOKALSEMIA
Hipokalsemia asimptomatik Ca > 3.2 Kalsium normal 4-5.2mg/dl atau 1- Hipokalsemia simptomatik
mg/dl 1.3mmol/L Ca < 2.8mg/dl
Pengobatan :
• Kalsium intravena 100-200mg
Hipomagnesemia hipokalsemia
kalsium elemental atau 1-2 gram
Hipomagnesemia dengan fungsi ginjal kalsium glukonas dalam 10-20menit.
normal dapat diberikan larutan 10% • Lalu diikuti dengan infus kalsium
glukonas dalam larutan dextrose
magnesium sulfat 2 gram selama 10 atau NaCl isotonis dengan dosis 0.5-
menit kemudian diikuti 1 gram dalam 1.5mg kalsium-elemental/KgBB
100cc cairan per 1 jam dalam 1 jam
• Kalsium infus kemudian dapat
ditukar dengan kalsium oral dan
kalsitriol 0.25-0.5ig/hari
HIPERKALSEMIA
Diagnosis
• Hiperkalsemia
Hiperparatiroidisme
sering menyertai penyakit :
Pemeriksaan hormon
• Tumor ganas paratiroid perlu dilakukan
• Intoksikasi vitamin A untuk membedakan penyebab
hiperkalsemia apakah oleh
• Sarkoidosis
hiperparatiroid primer atau
• Hipertiroidisme bukan seperti pada keganasan,
• Isufisiensi adrenal intoksikasi vitamin D, obat-
• Sindrom ‘Milk Alkali’ obatan atau penyakit
hipertiroid, insufisiensi adrenal
PENATALAKSAAN HIPERKALSEMIA
Hemodialisa/dialysis-peritoneal
- Efektif menurunkan kalsium dengan
memakai dialisat bebas kalsium
- Pilihan terakhir terutama untuk hipekalsemia
berat khususnya disertai insufisiensi ginjal atau
pada gagal jantung dimana pemberian cairan
dibatasi.