Form and Function

Dr.VMS
 Form and Meaning

Message - concept - meaning - what

Method - manner - form - how
 Form and function
There is no one-to-one rela­tionship between a particular
function (writing, drawing, word processing, etc.) and the
object used (pencil, computer) to carry out that function.

in language there is a lack of a one-to-one relationship

between the various forms we encounter and the functions
they perform.

A particular func­tion may be performed by different forms.

Realizations of the Subject

‘Who or what carried out the action denoted by the

verb?’
 ‘Who or what is this sentence about?’
NPs functioning as Subject

[NP The hedgehog] ate the cream cake.

[NP A rat] bit my toe.
[NP This shoe] hurts me.
[NP Academics] never lie.
PPs functioning as Subject

[PP Under the stairs] was a safe area to be during the

war.
[PP Outside the fridge] is not a good place to keep
milk.
[PP After Saturday] would be a good time to go away
for a few days.
[PP Between eleven and midnight] suits me alright.
AP and AdvP functioning as Subject

AP functioning as Subject

[AP Restless] is what I would call him.
AdvP functioning as Subject
[AdvP Cautiously] is how I would suggest you do it.
Finite clauses functioning as Subject

[That he will go to New York soon] is obvious.

[Because he is generous] doesn’t mean that he is rich.
[What the terrorists said] puzzled the police.
[Why she consented] remains a mystery.
To-infinitive clauses functioning as Subject
with a Subject of their own

[For Judith to buy that house] would spell disaster.

[For us to understand the issues] requires a major
mental effort.
[For Janet to go to College] would be a good idea.
[For Karl to visit art galleries] would not be desirable.
 To-infinitive clauses functioning as Subject
without a Subject of their own
) [To be a good teacher] is more difficult than people
think
[To see her] is to love her
[To surrender our arms] will seem cowardly.
[To break down this fence] could lead to a conflict
with the neighbours
 -ing participle clauses functioning as
Subject with a Subject of their own
Pete breaking the rules] is unacceptable.
[Students walking on the roof] poses a safety risk.
[Damien fooling around] embarrasses his friends.
[George buying all those books] will cost his father a
fortune.
-ing participle clauses functioning as Subject
with a Subject of their own
without a Subject of their own
[Going on holiday] always creates tensions.
[Running a business] is hard work.
[Swimming in this lake] will make you ill.
[Refusing to help the needy] is selfish.
Small Clauses functioning as Subject

[The kitchen free of cockroaches] is a welcome

prospect
Realisations of the Direct Object
Direct Objects are usually constituents which refer to
an entity that can be said to undergo the action
denoted by the verb.
A simple way of determining what is the Direct Object
in a particular sentence is to ask ‘Who or what is
affected by the action denoted by the verb?’
Eric lost his keys yesterday
What is affected by the process of losing?’
the answer is his keys. This NP is therefore the DO of
the sentence
Realisations of the Direct Object
Direct Objects can be realised by the following range
of phrases and clauses:
Noun Phrases,
Prepositional Phrases,
 finite clauses and nonfinite clauses.
NPs functioning as Direct Object

Sarah admires [NP the President].

Ralph enjoys [NP her company].
William lit [NP the barbecue].
Nina described [NP the event].
PPs functioning as Direct Object

Speaker A: Where will the new discotheque be built?

Speaker B: Where will the new discotheque be built?
Speaker A: Are you going on holiday before or after
Easter?
Speaker B: I prefer [PP before Easter
Finite clauses functioning as Direct Object

That-clauses functioning as Direct Object

The government believes [that the voters are stupid].
She admits [that she ignored the red light].
Maggie doubts [that her boyfriend will ever change].
We regret [that we appointed you].
Finite Wh-clauses functioning as Direct Object

He knows [what she means].

He explained [who would be in charge of the
investigation].
I don’t remember [why Paul said that].
They finally decided [where they will send their child
to school].
To-infinitive clauses functioning as Direct Object

with a Subject of their own:

Ann considers [Helen to be an excellent director].
They believe [the tabloid newspapers to contain
nothing but smut].
without a Subject of their own:
They expect [to leave the country within twenty-four
hours].
She proposed [to open a restaurant in London].
without a Subject of their own, introduced
by a Wh-word

He forgot [what to say to the examiners].

The dentist couldn’t decide [who to see next].
Bare infinitive clauses functioning as Direct Object

We saw [the sun rise].

Rick could hear [his tutor rage with anger].
She made [her boyfriend cry].
I let [the situation pass].
ing participle clauses functioning as Direct
Object

with a Subject of their own:

I heard [Jamie singing in the bath].
The witness saw [someone running away].
without a Subject of their own
She abhors [eating meat].
Willy intended [registering for the exams].
-ed participle clauses functioning as Direct
Object

We had [the prisoners jailed].

She watched [the ship moored].
Small clauses functioning as Direct Object
Martin considers [Tim a creep]. (1/4(16) of Chapter 4)
Larry judges [the Head of Department a genius].
Phil deems [Henry foolish]. (1/4(17) of Chapter 4)
NPs functioning as Indirect Object

She told [NP her brother] a lie.

Gertrude gave [NP her friend] a birthday present.
We sent [NP the committee] an angry letter
The curator of the museum showed [NP the party]
some rare paintings
Wh-clauses functioning as Indirect Object

Sean told [whoever wanted to hear it] his story

AdvPs functioning as Adjunct

He cleaned the house [AdvP quite cheerfully].

[AdvP Officially], the company denied all
responsibility.
He [AdvP urgently] needed to see a doctor.
They [AdvP repeatedly] had their car stolen.
PPs functioning as Adjunct

Otto cooked his evening meal [PP in a rush].

We met [PP outside Paris].
Frank cut the bread [PP with a penknife].
They always drink sherry [PP before dinner].
NPs functioning as Adjunct
Helen discovered the Italian restaurant [NP
yesterday].
The crisis began [NP last year].
He resigned [NP the month before last].
He wants me to do it [NP this second].
Finite clauses functioning as Adjunct

They will be cooking the meal, [when we arrive].

[While Francis was watching tv], Paul was peeling the
potatoes.
[Since he never used his card], the library cancelled
his membership.
We’ll go to Paris, [if you promise not to smoke].
To-infinitive clauses functioning as Adjunct
with a Subject of their own
We need some music, [ for us to enjoy the evening
Catherine will need to work harder, [ for her to reach her life’s
ambition]
without a Subject of their own:
[So as to move about more easily], Robert bought himself a
car.
You will need to travel to the United States, [to hear him
lecture].
[To produce an essay every two weeks], you will have to work
very hard.
Bare infinitive clauses functioning as Adjunct

Rather than sell the painting], Ike preferred to destroy

it.
Ray wants to travel by train, [sooner than fly].
-ing participle clauses functioning as Adjunct
with a Subject of their own:
[The streets being completely deserted], Jackie
preferred to take a cab.
Sally stared out of the window, [her thoughts drifting
away dreamily].
without a Subject of their own
[Working on his essay late], Tom was quickly
becoming tired
[Standing on a table], Dawn addressed the crowd.
 -ed participle clauses functioning as Adjunct
with a Subject of their own
[The attack averted], the people of the town could come out
of hiding.
We were all excited, [the plan accepted by the government].
without a Subject of their own
Meg joined Amnesty International, [convinced that this
would benefit political prisoners].
[Formulated clearly], this statement will cause no problems.
She died in her car, [suffocated by exhaust fumes].
Small clauses functioning as Adjunct

He is from a wealthy background, [his father a

businessman].
[The doctor ill], we had no-one to look after my sister.
She went back to her homeland, [her mind free of
hate].
[The police unrepentant], we took them to court.
Thank you