STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

•  is the creation (nucleosynthesis) of chemical elements by 

nuclear fusion reactions within stars. Stellar
nucleosynthesis has occurred since the original creation
 of hydrogen, helium and lithium during the Big Bang. As
a predictive theory, it yields accurate estimates of the
observed abundances of the elements. It explains why the
observed abundances of elements change over time and
why some elements and their isotopes are much more
abundant than others.
• Stars evolve because of changes in their composition (the
abundance of their constituent elements) over their
lifespans, first by burning hydrogen (main sequence star),
then helium (horizontal branch star), and progressively
burning higher elements.
• However, this does not by itself significantly alter the abundances
of elements in the universe as the elements are contained within the
star. Later in its life, a low-mass star will slowly eject its
atmosphere via stellar wind, forming a planetary nebula, while a
higher–mass star will eject mass via a sudden catastrophic event
called a supernova. The term supernova nucleosynthesis is used to
describe the creation of elements during the explosion of a massive
star or white dwarf.
• The advanced sequence of burning fuels is driven by 
gravitational collapse and its associated heating, resulting in the
subsequent burning of carbon, oxygen and silicon. However, most
of the nucleosynthesis in the mass range A = 28–56 (from silicon to
nickel) is actually caused by the upper layers of the star 
collapsing onto the core, creating a compressional shock wave
 rebounding outward. The shock front briefly raises temperatures by
roughly 50%, thereby causing furious burning for about a second.
This final burning in massive stars, called explosive
nucleosynthesis or supernova nucleosynthesis, is the final epoch of
stellar nucleosynthesis.
• A stimulus to the development of the theory of nucleosynthesis was
the discovery of variations in the 
abundances of elements found in the universe. The need for a
physical description was already inspired by the relative
abundances of the chemical elements in the solar system. Those
abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of the atomic
number of the element, have a jagged sawtooth shape that varies by
factors of tens of millions (see history of nucleosynthesis theory
).This suggested a natural process that is not random. A second
stimulus to understanding the processes of stellar nucleosynthesis
occurred during the 20th century, when it was realized that the 
energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the
longevity of the Sun as a source of heat and light.
 WHAT IS AN ATOM?

• An atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a

chemical element. An atom consists of a central nucleus
that is surrounded by one or more negatively charged 
electrons. The nucleus is positively charged and contains
one or more relatively heavy particles known as protons
 and neutrons.
•Atoms are the basic building blocks
of matter. Anything that takes up space
and anything with mass is made up of
atoms.
 WHAT ARE PROTONS AND NEUTRONS?

• Protons and neutrons are subatomic particles that

make up the center of the atom, or its atomic
nucleus.
• A proton is positively charged. The number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom is the atomic number for the
chemical element. Different elements' atomic numbers are
found in the Periodic Table of Elements.
 THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

•The total mass of an atom, including the

protons, neutrons and electrons, is the
atomic mass or atomic weight. The atomic
mass or weight is measured in 
atomic mass units.
• Electrons contribute only a tiny part to the mass of the
atomic structure, however, they play an important role in
the chemical reactions that create molecules. For most
purposes, the atomic weight can be thought of as the
number of protons plus the number of neutrons. Because
the number of neutrons in an atom can vary, there can be
several different atomic weights for most elements.
• Protons and electrons have equal and opposite
charges. Protons have a positive charge and
electrons a negative charge. Normally, atoms have
equal numbers of protons and electrons, giving
them a neutral charge.
• An ion is an atom with a different number of electrons
than protons and is electrically charged. An ion with extra
electrons has a negative charge and is called an anion and
an ion deficient in electrons has a positive charge and is
called a cation.
• Atoms having the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons represent the same element and are
known as isotopes of that element. An isotope for an
element is specified by the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons. For example, the following are two isotopes
of the carbon atom:
• Carbon 12 is the most common, non-radioactive
isotope of carbon.
• Carbon 14 is a less common, radioactive carbon
isotope.
• The only neutral atom with no neutrons is the
hydrogen atom. It has one electron and one proton.