Colligative properties of solution

are properties that depend upon the concentration

of solute molecules or ions, but not upon the
identity of the solute. Colligative properties
include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point
elevation, freezing point depression and osmotic
pressure. In this lesson colloids is also included.
 Vapor Pressure
measures the particle transition from the liquid phase to the gas phase
and vice versa. A substance that evaporates quickly has high vapor
pressure and is referred to as a volatile substance. When a solute is
added to a solvent, the vapor pressure decreases. The vapor pressure
of a solvent is lowered by the addition of a non － volatile solute to
form a solution because a non － volatile substance does not
evaporate.
 Raoult’s Law
states that the vapor pressure of an ideal solution is dependent on the vapor pressure
of the pure solvent and the mole fraction of the component present in the solution.
For an ideal solution, equilibrium vapor pressure is given by Raoult’s law:

In the equation, ρ*A is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent (constant) and χA is the
mole fraction of the solvent. This law allows us to calculate the vapor pressure of a
given solution, and shows the influence of all of the molecules in the solution.
(ρ = Lower-case Greek alphabeth Rho)
 Sample Problem
• Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution consisting of 3
moles of a nonvolatile solute and 15 moles of water at 25
o
C, given that the vapor pressure of pure water at 25 oC is
23.8 torr.
• Answer: 4.0 torr
 The van’t Hoff factor
The van’t Hoff factor (i) is the number of moles of particles formed in
solution per mole of solute. It is a property of the solute and does not
depend on concentration for an ideal solution. However, the van’t Hoff
factor of a real solution may be lower than the calculated value for a real
solution at high concentration values or when the solute ions associate with
one another. The van’t Hoff factor is a positive number, but it is not always
an integer value. It is equal to 1 for a solute that does not dissociate into
ions, greater than 1 for most salts and acids, and less than 1 for solutes that
form associations when dissolved.
 The van’t Hoff factor
The van’t Hoff factor applies to colligative properties and appears in the
formulas for osmotic pressure, vapor pressure, freezing point depression,
and boiling point elevation. The factor is named for Dutch chemist Jacobus
Henricus van’t Hoff, a founder of the field of physical chemistry and the
first winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
 How to Find the van’t Hoff Factor.

Follow the general rules to predict the ideal van’t Hoff factor:
For nonelectrolytes, the van’t Hoff factor is 1. Examples of
nonelectrolytes include sucrose, glucose, sugars, and fats.
Nonelectrolytes dissolve in water, but do not dissociate. For example:
sucrose(s) → sucrose (aq); i = 1 (one sucrose molecule)
For strong electrolytes, the ideal van’t Hoff factor is greater than 1 and equal
to the number of ions formed in aqueous solution. Strong acids, strong bases,
and salts are strong electrolytes. For example:
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq); i=2 (one Na+1 plus one Cl–1)
CaCl2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq); i=3 (one Ca+2 plus two Cl–1)
Fe2(SO4)3(s) → 2Fe+3(aq) + 3SO4–2(aq); i=5 (two Fe+3 plus three SO4–2)

Take care, however, because solubility affects measured van’t Hoff factor
values. For example strontium hydroxide [Sr(OH)2] is a strong base that
fully dissociates into its ions, but is has a low solubility in water. It might be
predicted the van’t Hoff factor to be 3 (Sr2+, OH–, OH–), but the experimental
value will be lower. Also, the van’t Hoff factor for concentrated solutions in
always slightly lower than the value for an ideal solution.
For weak electrolytes do not fully dissociate in water, so the van’t Hoff
factor would not be the same as the number of ions formed. An ICE table
(Initial, Change, Equilibrium) determine the concentration of reactants
and products and use the formula to calculate the van’t Hoff factor.
Another way to find the van’t Hoff factor is to measure osmotic pressure,
plug it into the van’t Hoff formula, and solve for i.

In this lesson, for non electrolytes and strong electrolytes will be

determined according to the guide. However, for weak electrolytes it will
be given in the problems.
 Boiling Point Elevation
The boiling point of a solvent will increase when a solute is dissolved in it.
This is referred to as Boiling Point Elevation. The elevation of the boiling
point is directly dependent on the amount of solute present in the solution, but
it is not based on the identity of the solute, so it is considered a colligative
property.
Boiling point elevation can be explained in terms of vapor pressure. Vapor
pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its
condensed phases at a given temperature. The boiling point of a pure liquid is
when the vapor pressure of the liquid matches the atmospheric pressure, the
liquid will boil.
A solvent’s vapor pressure will lower when a solute is added. This
happens because of the displacement of solvent molecules by the
solute. This means that some of the of solvent molecules at the
surface of the liquid are replaced by the solute; it can occur in both
electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions. The lower number of
solvent molecules at the surface means that fewer will evaporate,
and thus the vapor pressure is lowered. For the vapor pressure to
equal the atmospheric pressure, a higher temperature is required,
and a higher boiling point is observed.
Calculating Boiling Point Elevation
The extent of the boiling point elevation can be calculated. It is
directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solution. The
amount the boiling point is elevated is determined using the equation:
ΔTb = Kb x molality x i
Boiling Point of Solution = Boiling Point of pure solvent + ΔT b
In this equation, ΔTb is the boiling point elevation, Kb is the boiling
point elevation constant, and m is the molality of the solution. The “i”
factor of the equation also factors in any dissociation that the solute
may undergo; since boiling point elevation is a colligative property,
the number of ions present in an electrolyte affects the elevation.
 Sample Problem

Calculate the boiling point of an aqueous solution where enough NaCl

is added to make a 0.37 molal solution. The Kb for water is 0.512
o
C/m.
Answer: 100.38 oC
Application of Boiling Point Elevation to Food
Industry. Basics of Boiling
Boiling occurs through bubble formation, and the
bubbles are formed when atoms or molecules of
liquids spread out enough to change from its liquid
phase to gaseous phase. The most important factors
affecting the boiling point of a liquid are
atmospheric pressure, and the vapor pressure of the
liquid.
Vapor Pressure and Boiling
During evaporation, the molecules which leaves a liquid
creates an upward pressure because they collide with air
molecules, and this upward pressure is known as vapor
pressure. Intermolecular forces between different molecules
are different. Thus, different liquids possess different vapor
pressure, and hence, have different boiling point. The
liquids with high vapor pressures have lower boiling point,
and it can be increased by heating a liquid and causing
more molecules to enter the atmosphere. When vapor
pressure equals to atmospheric pressure boiling begins as
discussed earlier.
Atmospheric Pressure and Boiling
Atmospheric pressure directly affects the boiling point.
Atmospheric pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the
weight of air molecules above the liquid in the open system. It can
be visualized as air molecules colliding with the surface of the
liquid, which creates pressure. This pressure, throughout the liquid,
makes the bubble formation difficult, which in turn affects the
boiling. As elevation increases, atmospheric pressure decreases
because at higher altitudes air is less dense. This decrease in
atmospheric pressure, in turn lowers the boiling point. This is the
reason that the range of the boiling point of water varies from 70
°C to over 101 °C ; from the highest land point above sea level, i.e.,
Mount Everest to the deepest point, i.e., the dead sea.
When the boiling point of a solution is higher than the boiling
point of a pure solvent, boiling point elevation takes place. This is
because when solute is added to the solvent, vapor pressure of the
solution becomes less than the vapor pressure of pure solvent, and
hence, the boiling point of a solution will be greater than the
boiling point of the pure solvent. It is a colligative property that
means it depends on the number of particles present in a solution
and not on the type of particles and their mass. The most common
example of this phenomenon is that the boiling point of water is
increased by adding salt to the water. Basically, it is the
temperature change (rising) of the boiling point of solvent caused
by adding a solute.
Boiling point of Water. The water always boils at
100°C. but this is not completely true. The boiling
point of water varies at various locations. It varies
from 72°C to 101°C accordingly from the highest
point to the lowest point on land. The reason for these
variations is the lowering of atmospheric pressure as
we travel to the highest point such as mountains from
lowest land point, i.e., Dead sea.
 What temperature does water boil at?
Water’s boiling point can differ at different elevations.
Place Elevation (m) Boiling point of
water (oC)
Mt. Everest Highest Mountatin 8848 69.94
Kalimanjaro Highest Free Standing Mountain 5895 80.33
La Paz Highest Capital City 3640 87.71
London Capital City of United Kingdom 14 99.96
Sea Level Relative elevation reference 0 100.0
Baku World’s lowest capital city 28 100.1
The Dead Sea Lowest point in the world 427 101.4
Why does water’s boiling point vary?
It is not so much the elevation that affects water’s boiling point,
but because of the decreased atmospheric pressure at higher
elevations. A liqid will boil when its various pressure is equalt
the atmospheric pressure, vapor pressure can be thought of as the
tendency of molecules to escape liquid’s surface into gas phase.
Vapor pressure increased with increased temperature, as more
molecules have the kinetic energy required overcome attractions
to their water molecules. At lower pressure, molecules escape
more easily, as the vapor pressure required for them to do this is
lower.
Examples:
Pressure Cookers
Pressure cooking is the most common method of cooking in almost
every kitchen. Inside a pressure cooker, the water is heated, and
eventually it boils into steam. It uses the pressure of steam to cook
the food. When heated, the temperature increases inside the cooking
pot, which traps the vapors that rises from the liquid water, which
further increases the pressure inside the pressure cooker that
significantly speeds up the cooking process. Cooking involves
raising the temperature of food, which in turn triggers the chemical
reactions such as breaking down the tough tissues in meat, or soften
the starch in vegetables. The best part of pressure cooking is that it
reduces the cooking time and also keeps the nutrients intact.
Cooking with Salt
Salt is a inportant ingredient in the kitchen. It not only adds
flavor to our food but also raises the water’s boiling point.
This is an example of boiling point elevation. The
chemistry behind this is that when salt, i.e., sodium
chloride, is added to water, it dissociates into sodium and
chloride ions. These ions alter the intermolecular forces
between water molecules. Also, even without charged
solute, adding any solute to water raises its temperature
because of boiling point elevation. The more salt you add,
the more you are raising the boiling point because it
depends on the number of particles formed in the solution
as it is a colligative property.
Sugar Refining
When the sugarcane juice is extracted, it must be refined to obtain
crystalline sugar. Cane juice or syrup is boiled at some stages, and
the temperature at which it boils depends on the sugar
concentration. The important step of the sugar crystallization is
the pan boiling in vacuum pans of the boiling house. The main
function of this step is to produce and develop optimum sized
sugar crystals from the syrup. It is accomplished by boiling the
clarified mother liquor (which is the left over solution after
crystallization) in specially designed heat exchangers known as
vacuum pans, and the mother liquor is concentrated by boiling
under vacuum of 25-26″ of mercury using exhaust vapors.
Vacuum pans contain a large closed kettle with steam heated
pipes.
Boiling Milk
Water is a simple liquid, which does not contain any solids,
whereas milk is a compound, which contains fat in emulsion
form, protein in a colloidal state, and lactose as true solution.
When milk is heated, the fat, which is lighter than water, is
collected on the surface along with protein in form of cream, and
when milk is overheated, the water vapors expand, which builds
up pressure and lifts the creamy layer up, and eventually, milk
spills out. Although the boiling points of both milk and water are
somewhat closer, the boiling point of milk is slightly higher
because of boiling point elevation. As previously discussed when
solute is also present with pure solvent (here in case of milk, fats,
proteins in milk act as a solute), the boiling point of solution
increases.
 Freezing Point Depression
is a colligative property observed in solutions, brought on by the introduction of solute
molecules to a solvent. Freezing point depression is the phenomena that describes why
adding a solute to a solvent results in the lowering of the freezing point of the solvent.
When a substance starts to freeze, the molecules slow down due to the decreases in
temperature, and the inter molecular forces start to take over. The molecules will then
arrange themselves in a pattern, and thus turn into a solid. For example, as water is
cooled to the freezing point, its molecules become slower and hydrogen bonds begin to
“stick” more, eventually creating a solid. If salt is added to the water, the Na + and Cl–
ions attract to the water molecules and interfere with the formation of the large network
solid known as ice. In order to achieve a solid, the solution must be cooled to an even
lower temperature.
The freezing point depression can be calculated by the formula:
ΔTf = Kf x molality x i
Freezing poing of solution = freezing point of pure solvent - ΔTf

In this equation, ΔTf is the freezing point depression, Kf is the freezing point
depression constant, and i is the van ‘t Hoff factor (constant). The freezing
point depression constant changes depending on the solvent, and the van ‘t
Hoff factor accounts for the number of particles that a dissolving solute creates
in solution. The van 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration
of particles produced when the substance is dissolved and the concentration of
a substance as calculated from its mass. For most non-electrolytes dissolved in
water, the van 't Hoff factor is essentially 1.
 Sample Problem

What is the freezing point of an aqueous solution when enough NaCl

has been added to create a 0.25 m solution? The Kf value for water is
1.858 oC/m.
Answer: -0.929oC
Application of Freezing Point Depression to Food Industry

This freezing point depressions phenomenon is employed in the food

industry (ice cream and dessert making) where salt/sugar is added to a
freezing mixture to make ice cream. The measurements of freezing
point depression are also used in the dairy industry to ensure that only
the required amount of water is added to the milk.
Pure water at standard pressure (101.325 kPa or 1 atm) freezes at 0°C.
Addition of sugar e.g. sucrose will lower the temperature at which the
water freezes; the freezing point depression.
The Freezing Point Deprestions (FPD) of an ice cream mix depends mainly on
the number of sweetener molecules in the mix recipe and the number of milk
salt ions. The number of molecules depends on the weight of the sweetener
added and its molecular or formula weight.
This effect can be illustrated using two common sugars, fructose and sucrose.
Fructose has a molecular weight of approximately 180 whereas sucrose has a
molecular weight of about 342. The FPD of a 1 % fructose solution is
approximately twice that of a similar sucrose solution because there is almost
twice as many molecules of fructose present in the fructose solution; fructose
has about half the formula weight of sucrose.
 Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure is the pressure needed to nullify the effects of
osmosis and is directly influenced by the amount of solute in the
system.

U-Tube showing osmotic pressure: On the left side of the U-tube is an

aqueous solution, and on the right side is pure water. The pure water is
trying to dilute the solution by travelling through the semipermeable
membrane. Eventually the added weight of the extra water on the left
causes enough pressure to stop osmosis.
Equation for Osmotic Pressure: π = iMRT
where, i is the van ‘t Hoff factor, M is the molarity of the solution, R is the
gas constant (0.0821 atm.liter/mole.oK ), and T is the absolute temperature in
Kelvin and π is osmotic pressure. From this equation that the amount of
solute present in the solution will directly affect the osmotic pressure of the
system.
 Sample Problem

What is the osmotic pressure of a 1.35 M solution of NaCl at 25 oC?

Answer: 66.06 atm
Application of Osmosis in Food Preservation

Osmotic pressure is defined as the pressure that must be applied

to the solution side to stop fluid movement when semipermeable
membrane separates a solution from pure water
In hypotonic solutions,
there is a net
movement of water
from the outside
solution into inside
solution
An isotonic solution is any
external solution that has the
same solute concentration with
the inside concentration. In an
isotonic solution, no net
movement of water will take
place.
A cell placed into a hypertonic solution
will shrivel and die by a process known as
plasmolysis. Hypertonic solutions help to
preserve food. For example, packing food
in salt or pickling it in a hypertonic
solution of sugar or salt creates a
hypertonic environment that either kills
microbes or at least limits their ability to
reproduce.
Osmosis is the movement of solvent particles (usually water) across a semipermeable
membrane from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution. The solvent dilutes the
concentrated solution until concentration is equalized on both sides of the membrane.
Diffusion is the movement of solvent and solute particles from an area of higher
concentration to lower concentration. At equilibrium, the net effect is a homogeneous
concentration throughout the medium.
The principle of osmosis is used to preserve jams, jellies and
pickles. In this process, water tends to draw out from microbes
(plasmolysis) and makes it dehydrated, thus killing them. But
yeasts and moulds are relatively resistant to high osmotic
pressure. Hence, preserved foods like pickles tend to spoil if not
stored properly.
1. High Concentration of Sugar
Sugar is used to preserve fruits. Preserving fruits in honey to avoid spoilage is a
well known practice. Nowadays jams and jellies prepared from fruits have a high
concentration of sugar and it acts as a preserva-tive. Pectin, acid and sugar are
essential to prepare jam. Jam or jelly are prepared by adding commercially
prepared pectin and it also reduces the cooking time. Jellies are clear substances
made of fruit juice or the extract of a fruit.
Sugar acts in the following ways:
Sugar draws the water out of food therefore making it unavailable for
microorganisms. As a result of water loss, microbial metabolism is stopped.
Hence, the growth of microorganisms is stopped.

 
Preparation of jelly:
• Underripe fruits are used, because the pectin content is high and good acidity
is essential for a good jelly.
• Pieces of fruit are completely immersed in water and cooked for 10–20
minutes. Hard fruits like guavas need to be cooked for 45 minutes.
• After the fruit is cooked, it is strained without disturbing the fruit pieces.
• The fruit extracts contain pectin which determines the addition of sugar. When
the level of pectin is high, it needs more sugar but requires less boiling time.
• Rapid boiling facilitates rapid evaporation, which avoids strong flavor and
darkened colour.
• Then the jelly is poured in bottles or moulds, and allowed to set without any
disturbance.
Preparation of jam:
• Fruits like apples are cooked with skin and made into pulp with the strainer for
making jam
• Equal quantities of sugar and pulp are taken to make jam.
• After it is cooked, it is transferred to a sterilized bottle and allowed to cool.
Test for doneness for jam 
• Sheet test – the mixture is allowed to drip from a large cool spoon. If the syrup forms a sheet
instead of two separate drops, the jam is done.
• Bubble test – when the end point reaches, big bubbles can be seen throughout the jam.
• Plate test – set a plate in the freezer for some time. Put the jam and tilt the plate slowly. The
jam should come down as a whole mass forming “U” shape. Water should not separate out.
• Fork test – dip the fork into the jam or jelly. Jam of correct consistency forms a sheet between
the needles of the fork.
Honey
Honey is a natural preservative in its original state and was one of the earliest
preservatives used by ancient civilizations. It has a high concentration of sugar
that draws out the water out of yeast or bacteria cells which contaminate the
food.
2. High Concentration of Salt
Foods are also preserved by the principle of osmotic pressure in
salting and pickling. Most commonly used preservative is
sodium chloride. Required quantity may be added to slow down
or prevent the growth of microorganisms or enough to permit
lactic acid fermentation to take place.
Sodium chloride preserves the food by the following principles:
• It causes the high osmotic pressure and hence plasmolysis occurs.
• It dehydrates foods by drawing out and tying up moisture, as it
dehydrates microbial cell.
• It ionizes to yield the chlorine ion which is harmful to organisms.
• It reduces the solubility of oxygen in the moisture.
• It sensitizes the cell against carbon dioxide.
• It interferes with the action of proteolytic enzymes.
Pickling:
In pickling, food is placed in edible liquids like brine (salt solution), vinegar or
vegetable oil which inhibit or kill microorganisms. Sometimes, food is heated
along with pickling agent so that it gets saturated with it.

Pickles may be broadly divided into three groups:

• Sweet pickles e.g., tomato sweet pickle, mango sweet pickle.
• Sour pickles e.g., mango pickle, lime pickle.
• Fermented pickles e.g., cucumber pickle, cabbage pickle, chilli pickle, meat
and sausages.
 
The important preservative agents in pickles are salt, vinegar,
sugar, oil, spices and condiments. Each has a specific role in
preservation.
Vinegar:
Vinegar is a natural preservative. Vinegar is made from a two step process. The
first process involves the carbohydrate being converted into alcohol by
fermentation. The second step is its conversion to an acetic acid. The acetic acid
in vinegar kills microbes and stops food spoilage. Pickling is a common method
of using vinegar as a preservative. It is also used to improve the flavour of foods.
Spices and condiments:
These have bacteriostatic effect (slowing the growth and multiplication of
microbes). The essential oil of spices is inhibitor of microorganism. The
inhibitory effects of the spices differ with the kind of spice and the
microorganisms being tested. Mustard flour and the volatile oil of mustard, for
example, are very effective against Saccharomyces cerevisiae.  In pickles like
chilli pickle, mustard flour helps in the prevention of the growth of spoilage
organisms in the food.
Turmeric powder, tamarind, chilli powder, cinnamon and cloves are
usually bacterio-static. Ground pepper corn and all spices are less inhibitory
than cinnamon and cloves. Extracts of these plants have been shown to be
inhibitory to Bacillus subtilis and E. coli. Allicin is the active principle in
onions and garlic that kills bacteria and acts against fungi.

 
Oil:
In addition to salt and several spices, oils are used in making pickles. Spice
mixtures and oil are added to the fruit or vegetable. It is allowed to ferment for a
month or so. The fermentation process renders fruits soft and the fruit take on the
additional aroma and flavour of the spices. Aerobic bacteria and mould growth
are prevented by covering the top with oil. Properly prepared and stored pickles
can last upto a year or more without spoilage.
 Colloids
•A colloid is one of the three primary types of mixtures, with the other
two being a solution and suspension. A colloid is a mixture that has
particles ranging between 1 and 1000 nanometers in diameter, yet are
still able to remain evenly distributed throughout the solution. These
are also known as colloidal dispersions because the substances remain
dispersed and do not settle to the bottom of the container. In colloids,
one substance is evenly dispersed in another. The substance being
dispersed is referred to as being in the dispersed phase, while the
substance in which it is dispersed is in the continuous phase.
•
• To be classified as a colloid, the substance in the dispersed phase
must be larger than the size of a molecule but smaller than what can
be seen with the naked eye. This can be more precisely quantified as
one or more of the substance's dimensions must be between 1 and
1000 nanometers. If the dimensions are smaller than this the
substance is considered a solution and if they are larger than the
substance is a suspension.
 Classifying Colloids
A common method of classifying colloids is based on the phase of the
dispersed substance and what phase it is dispersed in. The types of
colloids includes sol, emulsion, foam, and aerosol.
1. Sol is a colloidal suspension with solid particles in a liquid.
2. Emulsion is between two liquids.
3. Foam is formed when many gas particles are trapped in a liquid or
solid.
4. Aerosol contains small particles of liquid or solid dispersed in a
gas.
The Tyndall Effect is the effect of
light scattering in colloidal
dispersion, while showing no light
in a true solution. This effect is
used to determine whether a
mixture is a true solution or a
colloid.
 What is Brownian Movement?
Brownian movement also called Brownian motion is defined as the
uncontrolled or erratic movement of particles in a fluid due to their
constant collision with other fast-moving molecules. Usually, the
random movement of a particle is observed to be stronger in smaller
sized particles, less viscous liquid and at a higher temperature. These
are also some of the factors that affect the movement of particles in a
fluid. One of the most common examples of Brownian motion is
diffusion. Cases, where pollutants are diffused in air or calcium
diffused in bones can be considered examples of this effect.
 Brownian Movement in Colloids

The Brownian motion effect is seen in all types of colloidal solutions.

Besides, this phenomenon clearly explains the random motion of sol
particles and indicates that these particles are not static. Nonetheless,
the main reason for this type of motion in sol particles is due to
unequal bombardment of the depressed phase particle leading to non-
uniform movement in native due to the difference in the size of the
particle.
Meanwhile, Brownian movement is not seen in true solution,
where the system is homogeneous and the bombardment is
uniform. However, in colloids the system is heterogeneous and
the bombardments are non-uniform leading to the random
measurement. One of the key advantages of this effect is that it
keeps sol particles in continuous motion, such that the particles
do not settle at the bottom further preventing the coagulation of
the lyophobic sols. This type of motion increases the stability of
a sol. Brownian motion is also observed in the plasma of cells in
which the particles in the cell are also in random motion without
making plasma in the cell dry.
Brownian Movement in chemistry is said to be the random zig-zag
motion of a particle that is usually observed under high power ultra-
microscope. This movement resembles the exact motion of pollen
grains in water as explained by Robert Brown, hence, the name
Brownian movement.
Application of Colloids in Food Industry

Food hydrocolloids are high molecular weight hydrophilic

biopolymers used in food products to control their texture, flavor and
shelf life. Colloidal systems in foods can be classified into different
groups based on the states of matter constituting the two phases. They
are sols, gels, emulsion and foam. Emulsion and foam again can be
categorised into solid emulsion/foam and liquid emulsion/foam.
Colloids are formed when one substance is dispersed through
another,
• sols (a solid is dispersed in a liquid)
• gels (a liquid held in a solid network, e.g., jam or jelly)
• emulsions (oily and watery liquids mixed together, e.g., milk
and butter)
• foams (bubbles of gas trapped in a liquid, e.g., whisked egg
white or whipped cream)
• solid foam (bubbles of gas trapped in a solid, e.g., meringue,
cake, bread).
Most colloids are stable, but the two phases may separate over a
period of time because of an increase in temperature or by
physical force. They may also become unstable when frozen or
heated, especially if they contain an emulsion of fat and water.
Functions of Colloidal Systems in Food Products:

Colloidal systems give structure; texture and mouth-feel to many

different food products, for example – Jam, ice cream,
mayonnaise. Food colloid contains hydrocolloid (a substance that
yields a gel with water) that gives stability and rheological (the
ability to flow or deformed) properties of food components. An
emulsifying agent may be used to help the oil and water phases to
mix permanently.
Types of Colloidal System in Food:

(i) Sols and Gels:

A sol can be defined as a colloidal dispersion in which a solid is the dispersed
phase and liquid is the continuous phase. Gravy, stirred custard and other thick
sauces are some of the examples of sols. When a jelly is made, gelatin is
dispersed into a liquid and heated to form a sol. As the solution cools, protein
molecules unwind forming a network that traps water and forms a gel.
If corn flour is mixed with water and heated, the starch granules absorb water
until they rupture, the starch then disperses in the water and the mixture becomes
more viscous and forms a gel on cooling. Other types of gel are formed with
pectin and agar. Pectin, a form of carbohydrate found in fruits, is used in the
production of jam to help it set.
However, for it to gel there must be at least 50% sugar and conditions should be
acidic. Agar is a polysaccharide extracted from seaweed which is capable of
forming gels. If a gel is allowed to stand for a time, it starts to ‘weep’ (to ooze
out a fluid slowly). This loss of liquid is known as syneresis (the separation og
liquid from gel caused by contraction).
(ii) Emulsions:
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more immiscible (they will not mix together)
liquids. One liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous
phase), i.e., material that keep fat globules in water droplet or water droplet in fat
are emulsifiers. When water and oil are shaken together, they form an emulsion.
This emulsion is unstable.
If left to stand, the oil will form a separate layer on top of the water, e.g.,
traditional French dressing. A stable emulsion is formed when two immiscible
liquids are held stable by a third substance, called an emulsifying agent. An
emulsion may be oil-in-water (o/w) in which case small oil droplets are dispersed
through water, e.g., milk, or water-in-oil (w/o) in which case small water droplets
are dispersed through oil, e.g., butter.
(iii) Foams:
Foams are composed of small bubbles of gas (usually air) dispersed in a liquid,
e.g., egg white foam. As liquid egg white is whisked, air bubbles are
incorporated. The mechanical action causes albumen proteins to unfold and form
a network, trapping the air. If egg white is heated, protein coagulates and
moisture is driven off. This forms solid foam, e.g., a meringue. Ice cream, bread
and cake are other examples of solid foams.
Stability of Colloidal Systems:
All colloidal systems have two phases a continuous phase and discontinuous or
dispersed phase. The particles of the dispersed substance are suspended in the
mixture and do not completely dissolved within. The substance which is
dispersed is known as the disperse phase and is suspended in the continuous
phase. Most colloids are stable. The stability depends on the interaction between
the two phases. But the two phases may separate over a period of time because of
an increase in the temperature or by physical force.
Stability of Sols and Gel in Food:
A sol is a colloidal system in which a solid is dispersed phase and liquid is the
continuous phase. The proper ratio of the ingredients is necessary to achieve the
desired viscosity of the sols at a certain temperature. Pectin is hydrophilic and
attracts a layer of water that is bound tightly to the molecules by hydrogen bonds.
So water forms an insulating shield for the pectin providing layers that inhibit
bonding between the molecules of the colloidal substances.
Sols can be transformed into gels as a result of reduction in temperature. In pectin
gel, the pectin molecules are the continuous phase and the liquid is the dispersed
phase while in pectin sol, the pectin molecules are the dispersed phase and the
liquid is continuous phase. Sols may be formed as a preliminary step in making a
gel. Jams and jellies made with pectin are common examples that form a sol prior
to the desired structure.
Stability of Emulsion in Food:
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more immiscible (they will not mix together)
liquids. One liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous
phase), i.e., material that keep fat globules in water droplet or water droplet in fat
are emulsifiers. An emulsion may be oil-in-water (o/w) in which case small oil
droplets are dispersed through water, e.g., milk, or water-in-oil (w/o) in which
case small water droplets are dispersed through oil, e.g., butter.

An emulsifying agent is made up of two parts. One is hydrophilic (water loving)

and the other is hydrophobic (water hating). The emulsifier holds the disperse
phase within the continuous phase. This results in the emulsion becoming stable.
Mayonnaise is an example of a stable emulsion of oil and vinegar, when egg yolk
(lecithin) may be used as an emulsifying agent. Stabilizers are often added to
emulsions to increase the viscosity of the product. These help improve the
stability of the emulsion, as over time the emulsion may separate. Stabilisers also
increase shelf life, E461 methylcellulose, used in low fats spreads.
References
• Food Preservation Methods , 11th Home Science : Chapter 4 : Food Preservation Methods
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• Kramer, Eric; David Myers (2012). “Five popular misconceptions of osmosis.” American Journal of Physics. 80
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• Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E.M. (1980). Statistical Physics (3rd ed). Vol. 5. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-
7506-3372-7.
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• Colloidal Systems in Food: Functions, Types and Stability | Food Chemistry.
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types-and-stability-food-chemistry/14096
• Study Material, Lecturing Notes, Assignment, Reference, Wiki description explanation, brief detail 11th Home
Science : Chapter 4 : Food Preservation Methods : Preservation by High Osmotic Pressure | Food Preservation
Methods