Lecture 4

Sound Structure
LET011P05

English Language and Culture

University of Groningen

December 6, 2022
Last week
- Phonology vs. phonetics

- Phonemes and allophones

- Phonemes distinguish meaning
- Allophones (parallel and complementary distribution)
- Minimal pair test

- Phonological rules
This week’s goals
- After this week’s classes, you should be able to…

- describe the structure of syllables in English;

- provide a syllable analysis of English words;
- apply English phonotactic rules to existing and nonce words.
Syllables
- Counting syllables
- Syllable structure
- Rules for syllables
- Syllable boundaries
Syllables
- Counting syllables
- Syllable structure
- Rules for syllables
- Syllable boundaries
Counting syllables
- How to determine what a syllable is
- Intuition
Counting syllables
- How to determine what a syllable is
- Intuition (?)
- Sonority theory
Sonority theory
- The sonority of a sound is its relative loudness
compared to other sounds

- Loudness = friction + vocal fold vibration

- Sonority hierarchy:
- p<b<f<v<m<l<r<j<i<a
- See also [- SONORANT] and [+ SONORANT]

- A syllable is one peak in sonority

Sonority theory
Sonority theory
Sonority theory
Syllables
- Counting syllables ✅
- Syllable structure
- Rules for syllables
- Syllable boundaries
Syllable structure

syllable

onset nucleus coda

s t r ɛ s
Syllable structure

syllable

rhyme

onset nucleus coda

s t r ɛ s
Syllable structure

Rh

On Nu Co

s t r ɛ s
Syllable structure
σ σ

Rh Rh

On Nu Co On Nu Co

s ɪ n t æk s
Syllables
- Counting syllables ✅
- Syllable structure ✅
- Rules for syllables
- Syllable boundaries
Phonotactics
- Onset of an English syllable
- xa = /s/
- xb = plosive or fricative
- xc = nasal or approximant
- xa–c = all optional

On

xa xb xc
Phonotactics
- Rhyme of an English syllable
- x1 = mandatory
- x2 = in nucleus or coda
- x3-6 = optional
- x1-5 = decrease in sonority
- x6 = can be /s/ (so that’s an increase in sonority again)
Syllable template with phonotactics
Syllable template with phonotactics and features
Further restrictions
- The syllable template rules out some pronunciations in English
- xenon can’t be: */ksiːnən/ → /ziːnən/
- psychology can’t be: */psaɪkɑlədʒi/ → /saɪkɑlədʒi/

- But it incorrectly allows some other pronunciations

- pneumonia is not: */pnuːmoʊnjə/
- knowledge is not: */knɑlədʒ/
Phonotactic filters
- Because the template is too general and there are exceptions, we
need to filter out the options that don’t/can’t occur

- These onsets are OK: /pl/ /bl/ /kl/ /ɡl/ /fl/ /sl/
/pr/ /br/ /tr/ /dr/ /kr/ /ɡr/ /θr/
/tw/ /dw/ /kw/ /ɡw/ /θw/ /sw/

- These onsets are not OK: /tl/ /dl/ /θl/

/pw/ /bw/ /fw/

- Can we generalize and formalize the filters using features?

Phonotactic filters
Phonotactics
- Phonotactics are language-dependent
- Japanese doesn’t allow onset clusters
- English: /skruː/
- Japanese: /sə.kə.rɯː/ (‘epenthesis’)

- Spanish does not allow /s/ in xa

- Latin: stupidus
- Spanish: /es.tu.pi.do/

- SSBE does not allow /r/ in the rhyme

- Earlier English: /kɑr/
- SSBE: /kɑː/
Bling is not a word (?)
- Giegerich (1992, p. 174)

- “While *bning is clearly impossible, there is really nothing

wrong with bling, except that it does not happen to have a
meaning attached to it in English.”
Bling is not a word (?)

B.G. (w/ Hot Boys & Big Tymers) – “Bling Bling”

“BLING ERA”

Giegerich (1992)
Skeletal tier
- Why do we argue for a skeletal tier?
- So we can use the template and phonotactics
- It allows for generalizations about phonotactic characteristics
- It shows the integrity of the rhyme
- Very difficult without the skeletal tier
Tiers
Skeletal tier
- Why do we argue for a skeletal tier?
- So we can use the template and phonotactics
- It allows for generalizations about phonotactic characteristics
- It shows the integrity of the rhyme
- Very difficult without the skeletal tier

- It gives an explanation for processes in language acquisition and change

- First language acquisition
- Compensatory lengthening
Skeletal tier
- Why do we argue for a skeletal tier?
- So we can use the template and phonotactics
- It allows for generalizations about phonotactic characteristics
- It shows the integrity of the rhyme
- Very difficult without the skeletal tier

- It gives an explanation for processes in language acquisition and change

- First language acquisition
- Compensatory lengthening
First language acquisition
- Some parts of a syllable are ‘more important’
- Rhymes are mandatory, onsets are optional
- Without a nucleus, there is no syllable
- Consonant clusters in onsets
- xb is more important than xa
First language acquisition
- Some parts of a syllable are ‘more important’
- Rhymes are mandatory, onsets are optional
- Without a nucleus, there is no syllable
- Consonant clusters in onsets
- xb is more important than xa

- Evidence: children who cannot say consonant clusters yet

‘delete’ xa but not xb

- English: step /stɛp/

- Dutch: schaap (‘sheep’) /sxaːp/
First language acquisition
- Some parts of a syllable are ‘more important’
- Rhymes are mandatory, onsets are optional
- Without a nucleus, there is no syllable
- Consonant clusters in onsets
- xb is more important than xa

- Evidence: children who cannot say consonant clusters yet

‘delete’ xa but not xb

- English: step /stɛp/ → [tɛp] or [sɛp]

- Dutch: schaap (‘sheep’) /sxaːp/ → [xaːp] or [saːp]
First language acquisition
- Some parts of a syllable are ‘more important’
- Rhymes are mandatory, onsets are optional
- Without a nucleus, there is no syllable
- Consonant clusters in onsets
- xb is more important than xa

- Evidence: children who cannot say consonant clusters yet

‘delete’ xa but not xb

- English: step /stɛp/ → [tɛp] or [sɛp]

- Dutch: schaap (‘sheep’) /sxaːp/ → [xaːp] or [saːp]
Skeletal tier (continued)
- Why do we argue for a skeletal tier?
- So we can use the template and phonotactics
- It allows for generalizations about phonotactic characteristics
- It shows the integrity of the rhyme
- Very difficult without the skeletal tier

- It gives an explanation for processes in language acquisition and change

- First language acquisition
- Compensatory lengthening
Skeletal tier (continued)
- Why do we argue for a skeletal tier?
- So we can use the template and phonotactics
- It allows for generalizations about phonotactic characteristics
- It shows the integrity of the rhyme
- Very difficult without the skeletal tier

- It gives an explanation for processes in language acquisition and change

- First language acquisition
- Compensatory lengthening
Compensatory lengthening
- In very early English, nasals disappeared before fricatives
- The result was that the preceding vowel became longer

Proto-Germanic Old English

ɡans ɡaːs ‘goose’
fimf fiːf ‘five’
tanθ taːθ ‘tooth’
munθ muːθ ‘mouth’

- How does the skeletal tier explain this?

Compensatory lengthening
σ

Rh

On Nu Co

x x1 x2 x3

m u n θ
Compensatory lengthening
σ

Rh

On Nu Co

x x1 x2 x3

m u n θ
Compensatory lengthening
σ

Rh

On Nu Co

x x1 x2 x3

m uː θ
Compensatory lengthening
- In very Early English, nasals disappeared before fricatives
- The result was that the preceding vowel became longer

- Other examples
- Loss of rhoticity: car /kɑr/ → /kɑː/
- Child language: Elmo /ɛl.moʊ/ → [ɛː.moʊ]
Compensatory lengthening
- In very Early English, nasals disappeared before fricatives
- The result was that the preceding vowel became longer

- Other examples
- Loss of rhoticity: car /kɑr/ → /kɑː/
- Child language: Elmo /ɛl.moʊ/ → [ɛː.moʊ]
Tiers
Skeletal tier (continued)
- Why do we argue for a skeletal tier?
- So we can use the template and phonotactics
- It allows for generalizations about phonotactic characteristics
- It shows the integrity of the rhyme
- Very difficult without the skeletal tier

- It gives an explanation for processes in language acquisition and change

- First language acquisition
- Compensatory lengthening

- It helps explain stress in syllables (next week)

Syllables
- Counting syllables ✅
- Syllable structure ✅
- Rules for syllables ✅
- Syllable boundaries
Syllable boundaries
- We know the word sleepy /sliːpi/ has two syllables (because it has
two peaks in sonority)
- But where is the boundary between these two syllables?
- i.e., is the /p/ in coda 1, or in onset 2?

sliː . pi sliːp . i
mə . riː . nə mər . iːn . ə
fə . niː . mɪk fən . iːm . ɪk
stæ . ndərd stæn . dərd stænd . ərd
Syllable boundaries
- We know the word sleepy /sliːpi/ has two syllables (because it has
two peaks in sonority)
- But where is the boundary between these two syllables?
- i.e., is the /p/ in coda 1, or in onset 2?

sliː . pi sliːp . i
mə . riː . nə mər . iːn . ə
fə . niː . mɪk fən . iːm . ɪk
stæ . ndərd stæn . dərd stænd . ərd
Syllable boundaries
- Maximal onset principle
- Put syllable boundaries to make maximal onsets
- But in accordance with phonotactics

- stæn . dərd — because nd is not a possible onset

- æt . ləs — because tl is not a possible onset
- eɪ . prən — because pr is a possible onset
Syllable boundaries
- We also apply the maximal onset principle across word boundaries

- “Yes, it is.”
- /jɛs ɪt ɪz/ → /jɛ.sɪ.tɪz/ → [jɛ.sɪ.tʰɪz] — aspiration surfaces

- “Here it is.”
- [hɪə.ɹɪ.tʰɪz] — the /r/ resurfaces in non-rhotic varieties
- [lɔ.ɹə.nɔː.də] — …or appears out of nowhere
- [pʰɔː.lə.ɹən.daɪ]
- [kʰæ.nə.də.ɹən.də.mɛ.ɹɪ.kə]

- “He’ll eat it.”

- [hɪə.liː.tɪt] — clear /l/

- The maximal onset principle is universal

- But it depends on phonotactics, which are language-specific
- So syllable boundaries are language-specific
Syllable boundaries
Syllable boundaries
- “Pro-bab-ly…”
- Did Jake place the syllable boundaries correctly?

prɑ . bə . bli prɑb . əb . li

prɑ . bəb . li prɑb . ə . bli
prɑ . bəbl . i prɑb . əbl . i
Syllable boundaries
- “Pro-bab-ly…”
- Did Jake place the syllable boundaries correctly?

prɑ . bə . bli prɑb . əb . li

prɑ . bəb . li prɑb . ə . bli
prɑ . bəbl . i prɑb . əbl . i
Syllable boundaries
- “Pro-bab-ly…”
- Did Jake place the syllable boundaries correctly?

prɑ . bə . bli prɑb . əb . li

❌ prɑ . bəb . li prɑb . ə . bli
prɑ . bəbl . i prɑb . əbl . i
Syllable boundaries
- “Pro-bab-ly…”
- Did Jake place the syllable boundaries correctly?

✅ prɑ . bə . bli prɑb . əb . li

prɑ . bəb . li prɑb . ə . bli
prɑ . bəbl . i prɑb . əbl . i
Syllables
- Counting syllables ✅
- Syllable structure ✅
- Rules for syllables ✅
- Syllable boundaries ✅
Summary
- A syllable contains one peak in sonority

- Syllables consist of an onset and a rhyme

- And a rhyme consists of a nucleus and a coda

- A maximum number of x-positions in each of these

- Rules about syllables: phonotactics

- Syllable boundaries should produce maximal onsets