Moscow State Institute of International

Relations (MGIMO-University)
School of Government and International Affairs
& Alexander Shishkin Department of Philosophy

The Basics of Philosophy

Part I
Introduction

Lecture 1

The Subject of Philosophy and the

Nature of Philosophical Knowledge
 The Subject of Philosophy
and the Nature of Philosophical Knowledge
 The Concept of Philosophy
• Knowledge and Cognition
• Ordinary and Theoretical Knowledge
• Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge
• Philosophy and Ideology
 The Subject and Major Branches of Philosophy
• Ontology
• Epistemology
• Axiology
 The Three Philosophical Traditions
• The Western Philosophy
• The Indian Philosophy
• The Chinese Philosophy
 The Four Epochs and the Two Paradigms of Western Philosophy
• The Ancient Philosophy
• The Medieval Philosophy  The Pre-Platonic Philosophy
• The Modern Philosophy  The Post-Platonic Philosophy
• The Contemporary Philosophy  The Post-Kantian Philosophy
 The Concept of Philosophy

Φιλοσοφία
Φιλειν, Gr. to love
Σοφία, Gr. the wisdom

The term philosophy

Pythagoras
is believed to have been
(c. 580 – c. 500 B.C.)
coined by Pythagoras
 The Concept of Philosophy
Knowledge and Cognition

Knowledge
is a form of social and individual memory,
a “curtailed” scheme of activity and communication,
a result of designating, structuralising and
comprehending an object in the process of cognition.

I. Kasavin. Knowledge (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

The Concept of Philosophy
Knowledge and Cognition

Cognition
is a philosophical category that refers to
the process of constructing ideal plans
of activity and communication,
development of symbolic systems
required to uphold human interaction
with both other humans and the world at large
in various experiential contexts.

I. Kasavin. Cognition (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

 The Concept of Philosophy
Ordinary and Theoretical Knowledge

Knowledge

Ordinary Theoretical
knowledge knowledge
Simple knowledge

Know-how (art)
Experience
 The Concept of Philosophy
Ordinary and Theoretical Knowledge

Theory
is, in the narrower and more specific sense,
the highest, most developed form of scientific knowledge
that renders comprehensive portrayal
of regular essential relations
within a specific sphere of reality.
Structurally, a theory is
a differentiated, but integral system of knowledge
characterised by
 the logical interdependence of elements
 and the possibility to deduce the theory’s content
from the set of the theory’s basic notions and assumptions.

V. Shvyryov. Theory (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge

Science
is (1) a specific kind of cognitive activity
aimed at developing
 objective,
 systemic and
 substantiated
knowledge about the world;
(2) social institutions
providing for this cognitive activity.

V. Styopin. Science (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge

The Defining Features of Scientific Knowledge

Scientific knowledge Science strives

is theoretical. after objective truths.

Science is a body of
knowledge organised
as a system of
logically interrelated
statements.
 The Concept of Philosophy
Philosophy and Ideology

Truth
is a central concept of epistemology;
in tradition conventionally traced back to Aristotle,
though ascertained well before him,
truth signifies the correspondence
of subjective cognitive acts
(sensations, perceptions,
concepts, beliefs, theories, etc.)
to objective reality.

This Aristotelian concept of truth is nowadays called

the correspondence theory of truth.
 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge

The Defining Features of Scientific Knowledge

Scientific knowledge Science strives Scientific statements

is theoretical. after objective truths. must be substantiated.

Science is a body of The goal of science is Scientific statements

knowledge organised to understand reality must be based on facts
as a system of as it actually is, not as (“save the phenomena”)
logically interrelated it appears to us, nor as and take into account
statements. we would rather have it. all relevant facts.
 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge

Fact
(Lat. factum, of facere, to do) is
(1) something that has actual existence
as different from imaginary;
(2) a piece of information presented as
having objective reality,
in fact meaning in truth.

Adapted from The Merriam-Webster's Dictionary.

 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge
A branch of knowledge that Russell
deals with the most general (1872 – 1970)
laws of the Universe
Philosophy is a kind of
“superscience”
(the(«наука
“main” наук»)
science”)
A kind of knowledge that is
based on free enquiry, but
lacks scientific definiteness
Philosophy is a kind of
“underscience” (“science to
be” or, perhaps, never to be)
The study of man’s relation to
the world, rather than of
the world or the man as such
Philosophy, in its relation to
Aristotle science, is a “metascience”
(384 – 321 B.C.) (the reflective science)
 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge

Science
Philosophy
seeks understanding of objective
differs from science in that
reality and, therefore, disengages
it does not disengage itself
from everything subjective.
from the subjective.
In other words, science strives
On the contrary, philosophy strives
towards an outlook of the world as
towards a world outlook that
it would be if we never existed or, at
not merely takes into account
least, never sought to understand it.
our presence in the world,
What science depicts is, thus, not
but makes it, i.e. our presence in
the world as it really is (for the real
the world (or to put it otherwise,
world includes us, too!), but a specific
the subject-object relations) its
specific field and focus of study.
aspect (or model) of the real world.
 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge

Knowledge

Ordinary Theoretical
knowledge knowledge

Objective Reflective
knowledge knowledge
Simple knowledge

Know-how (art)
Experience

Science
 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge

Reflection
(self-reflection)
(Lat. reflexio, bending back)
is examination of one’s own
thoughts and feelings,
thinking aimed at itself,
self-understanding.
 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge

Philosophy
is a specific form of knowledge
about the principles of human existence
and human attitude to nature, society and culture.

Adapted from
V. Styopin. Philosophy (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
 The Concept of Philosophy
Scientific and Philosophical Knowledge

The Defining Features of Philosophical Knowledge

Like scientific, Philosophy draws on Like scientific,

philosophical objective truths, but philosophical
knowledge is treats of issues that statements must be
theoretical. transcend objectivity. substantiated.

Philosophy is a body of The goal of philosophy Facts as such are not

knowledge organised is not limited to sufficient to corroborate
as a system of understanding reality philosophical doctrines,
logically interrelated as it actually is, but to their substantiation is in
statements. reflect on our relations the critical character of
and attitudes to it. philosophic reflection.
 The Concept of Philosophy
Philosophy and Ideology

Knowledge

Ordinary Theoretical
knowledge knowledge

Objective Reflective
knowledge knowledge
Simple knowledge

Know-how (art)
Experience

Critical Uncritical
reflective reflective
knowledge knowledge
Science

Philosophy Ideology
 The Concept of Philosophy
Philosophy and Ideology

Ideology
is a system of conceptually organised ideas
that expresses
the interests, world outlook and ideals
of various political actors
(classes, nations, communities, political parties and movements)
and serves to sanction
either the existing social order
(conservative ideologies)
or the need to change it
(ideologies of leftist or rightist radicals).

G. Semigin. Ideology (from The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

 The Concept of Philosophy
Philosophy and Ideology

Philosophy Ideology
is a form of is an attempt
theoretical knowledge at theoretical justification
based on critical examination of subjective attitudes:
of the subject-object relations: personal or group
of human existence interests, prejudices and ideals,
and human attitude i.e. their uncritical projection
to nature, onto social and,
society when deemed opportune,
and culture. natural reality.
 The Concept of Philosophy
Philosophy and Ideology

The Defining Features of Ideological Knowledge

Like scientific and Ideology may be seen Unlike scientific and

philosophical, as a kind of knowledge, philosophical,
ideological knowledge but cognition is not ideological knowledge
is theoretical. its major function. is unsubstantiated.

Ideology is a body of The goal of ideology Though ideological

knowledge organised is not knowledge tenets are drawn from
as a system of of objective reality, certain postulates, the
logically interrelated but justification of latter are just asserted,
statements. subjective attitudes. not corroborated.
 The Subject and Major Branches of
Philosophy

Philosophy
as critical reflection on human relations and attitudes to reality

Reflection Reflection Reflection

on objective relations on cognitive relations on value attitudes

Ontology Epistemology Axiology

The study of being The study of The study of values

knowledge,
Metaphysics more specifically, but Ethics Aesthetics
not exclusively of
The study of scientific knowledge
The study The study of
transcendent
of good beauty
principles of being
 The Major Branches of Philosophy
Ontology

Ontology Metaphysics
(Gr. μετά τά φυσικά,
(Gr. όν, Gen. όντος, being,
the [works] after Physics)
and λόγος, word, notion)
is a division of philosophy
is a branch of philosophy
concerned with the fundamental
concerned with
nature (usually understood as
the nature and relations of being.
transcendent) of reality and being.
It is sometimes identified with
The term is sometimes used as
metaphysics inasmuch as the latter
synonymous to philosophy;
is understood as the study of
sometimes, to ontology. It also
transcendent principles of
implies elements of epistemology
reality and being.
required to define its subject.
The Major Branches of Philosophy
Epistemology

Epistemology
(Gr. επιςτήμη, knowledge,
and λόγος, word, notion)
is theory of knowledge; the study
of the nature and grounds of
knowledge, especially with
reference to its limits and validity.
In languages (such as German and
Russian) in which theory of
knowledge is called gnoseology,
epistemology usually refers to
theory of scientific knowledge.
 The Major Branches of Philosophy
Axiology

Axiology Ethics
(Gr. αξια, value, (Gr. ηθικά, from ηθικός,
and λόγος, word, notion) related to customs and character;
is a branch of philosophy Lat. Ethica)
concerned with is a study of morals;
the nature, types and criteria a philosophical discipline
of values and value judgements, concerned with
especially in ethics and what is morally good and bad,
aesthetics. right and wrong.

Apart from good and beauty as the highest ethical and aesthetic values, some axiologists
treat of truth and being itself as, respectively, the highest epistemic and existential values.
 The Three Philosophical Traditions

China
Greece

The 6th century B.C. (“The Axial Time”) India

 The Four Major Epochs
of Western Philosophy
 The Ancient Philosophy (6th century B.C. – 3rd century A.D.)
• The Early Ancient Philosophy (6th – 5th centuries B.C.)
• The High Classical Philosophy (late 5th – 4th centuries A.D.)
• The Hellenistic Philosophy (late 4th – 1st centuries B.C.)
• The Late Ancient Philosophy (1st – 3rd centuries A.D.)
 The Medieval Philosophy (4th – 14th centuries)
• The Patristic Philosophy (4th – 8th centuries)
• The Scholastic Philosophy (11th – 14th centuries)
 The Modern Philosophy (15th century – 1830s)
• The Renaissance Philosophy (15th – 16th centuries)
• The Early Modern Philosophy (17th century)
• The Enlightenment Philosophy (1700s – 1770s)
• The Classical German Philosophy (1780s – 1830s)
 The Contemporary Philosophy (since 1840s)
 The Two Major Paradigms
of Western Philosophy
 Pre-Platonic Philosophy
(6th century B.C. – 5th century A.D.)

 Post-Platonic Philosophy
(4th century B.C. – 18th century)

 Post-Kantian Philosophy
(since 19th century)
 Philosophy

Were there no advantage

to be reaped from these studies,
beyond the gratification of
an innocent curiosity,
yet ought not
even this to be despised; as
being one accession to those few
safe and harmless pleasures,
which are bestowed
on the human race.

David Hume.
An Enquiry Concerning
Human Understanding.
 The Course Content
 Section 1. Introduction
• Lecture 1. The Subject of Philosophy and the Nature of Philosophical
Knowledge
 Part I. Ancient and Medieval Philosophy
 Section 2. Cosmocentric Philosophy: Classical Greek Philosophy
• Lecture 2. From Thales to Zeno: Early Greek Philosophy of Nature
• Lecture 3. Ancient Atomism: Substantiation of Materialism
• Lecture 4. Plato: Substantiation of Idealism
• Lecture 5. Aristotle's Ontology: The Structure of Reality
• Lecture 6. Aristotle's Epistemology: The Structure of Knowledge
• Lecture 7. Aristotle's Logic : The Tool and Language of Thought
 Section 3. Anthropocentric Philosophy: Hellenistic and Roman
Philosophy
• Lecture 8. Epicureans and Stoics: Philosophy as the Art of Living.
• Lecture 9. Ancient Skepticism: The Uncertainty of Knowledge
 Section 4. Theocentric Philosophy: Western Medieval Philosophy
• Lecture 10. Western Medieval Philosophy
 The Course Content
 Part II. Modern Philosophy
 Section V. Epistemocentric Philosophy: Modern European
Philosophy
• Lecture 11. Francis Bacon: Substantiation of Empiricism
• Lecture 12. René Descartes and Benedict Spinoza: Substantiation of
Rationalism
• Lecture 13. John Locke and Gottfried Leibniz: Ontological Foundations
and the Nature of Human Understanding
• Lecture 14. George Berkeley and David Hume: Idealism Ontological
and Epistemological
 Section VI. The Origins of Sociocentric Philosophy: Classical
German Philosophy
• Lecture 15. Kant’s Theory of Knowledge
• Lecture 16. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: Absolute Idealism
• Lecture 17. Karl Marx: Historical Materialism
 Textbooks
The Principal Textbooks

Anthony Kenny. Bertrand Russell. Nikolai Biryukov,

A New History of A History of Anton Zakharov.
Western Philosophy. Western Philosophy. The Basics of Philosophy.
 Textbooks
Supplementary Readings

Frederick Copleston.
Wilhelm Windelband. Routledge History of Philosophy.
A History of Philosophy.
A History of Philosophy Vol. I-X
Vol. 1-10
Questions?