UNDERSTANDING Historical Perspective

PSYCHOLOGY
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Definition– A scientific study of human behavior
and mental processes.
Etymologically, it came from the Greek words,
Psyche which means “soul” or “mind”, and Logos
which means “the study of”.
BEHAVIOR
Any response or activity of an organism.
It can either be simple or complex; overt or covert;
conscious or unconscious; voluntary or involuntary;
rational or irrational.
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
TO DESCRIBE BEHAVIOR

TO EXPLAIN BEHAVIOR

TO PREDICT BEHAVIOR
TO CONTROL OR CHANGE
BEHAVIOR
• Use scientific methods to find answers that are far more valid
and legitimate than those resulting from intuition and
speculation
 HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE
IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Aristotle (384 –322 BC) –
He made assumptions out of observation regarding human behavior.
He believed that all beings, humans included, have souls, which
animate them.
Humans, however, compared to other animal, have rational souls.
Thus, humans are not only, physical, but also rational.
He also theorized about learning, memory, motivation, emotion,
perception and personality.
IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) –
He supported the view that humans enter the world with an
inborn store of knowledge.
He argued that some ideas (such as God, the self, perfection
and infinity) are innate.
He is also notable for his conception of the body as a
machine that can be studied.
IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGY
John Locke (1632–1704)
Believed that at birth the human mind is a “tabula rasa” or a
blank slate, on which experience “writes” knowledge.

Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)

He is the author of the Law of Natural Selection or Theory of
Evolution; inspired the Psychological school of thought,
Functionalism.
IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Francis Galton (1822–1911)
He was concerned with the study of individual differences. He
was considered as the “Father of Mental tests”

Ernst Weber (1795–1878); Gustav Fechner; Herman von

Helmholtz (1821–1894)
German Physicians who started experimenting with behavior
through scientific methodologies.
 IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Wilhelm Wundt
 Considered as the “Father of Modern Psychology.”
 He established the first experimental laboratory for the study of Psychology,
in Leipzig, Germany, 1879.
 He created a machine that measured the time lag between people’s hearing a
ball hit the platform and their pressing a telegraph key.
 Wundt has seeking to measure the “atoms of the mind” – the fastest and
simplest mental processes.
IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGY
G. Stanley Hall
A student of Wundt’s who established what many consider as the
first American psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins
University in 1883.

Hermann Ebbinghaus
A German who reported on the first experiments on memory,
1885.
 SCHOOLS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
1. STRUCTURALISM (EDWARD
TITCHENER)
– Study of the parts of conscious experiences
through introspection.
Conscious experiences are composed of
sensations, feelings, and images. Introspection is a
process of studying the self, or self-examination.
Introduced by St. Thomas of Aquinas.
2. FUNCTIONALISM (WILLIAM
JAMES)
– Defines behavior or the mental phenomena in terms of
their functions in man’s adjustment to his environment.
It is very much influenced by Darwin’s Theory of
Evolution.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY (MAX
WERTHEIMER, WOLFGANG
KOHLER, KURT KOFFKA)
Believed that the human mind imposes meaning to
related experiences.
It advocates that the study of human behavior should be
wholistic.
 “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
4. BEHAVIORISM (JOHN B.
WATSON)
Emphasized the need to study what is observable.
Its objective was to predict and control behavior.
Stimulus-Response Psychology.
5. PSYCHOANALYSIS
(SIGMUND FREUD)
– Much of our behavior is governed by unconscious
motive and primitive biological instincts.
It considered all humans basically would like to gain
pleasure and avoid pain.
CONTEMPORARY
APPROACHES
Neuroscience - Views behavior from the perspective of
biological functioning
Psychodynamic - Believes behavior is motivated by
inner, unconscious force over which a person has little
control
CONTEMPORARY
APPROACHES
Behavioral - Focuses on observable behavior
Cognitive - Examines how people understand and think
about the world
Humanistic – Contends that people can control their
behavior and that they naturally try to reach their full
potential
 METHODS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire
knowledge and understanding about behavior and other
phenomena of interest.
1. Identifying questions of interest,
2. Formulating an explanation, (Theories and Hypotheses)
3. Carrying out research designed to support or refute the
explanation.
METHODS USED IN
PSYCHOLOGY
1. Descriptive Research – An approach to research designed to
systematically investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior.
a. Naturalistic Observation - Research in which an investigator simply
observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change
in the situation
b. Directed Observation (Survey) - Research in which people chosen to
represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their
behavior, thoughts, or attitudes.
METHODS USED IN
PSYCHOLOGY
1. Descriptive Research – An approach to research designed to
systematically investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior.
 c. Archival Research - Research in which existing data, such as census
documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a
hypothesis.
 d. Case Study - An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or
small group of people.
METHODS USED IN
PSYCHOLOGY
2. Correlational Method - The correlational method involves
systematically measuring the relationship between two or more
variables
Correlation Coefficient : +1.00 to -1.00
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
CORRELATION METHOD
METHODS USED IN
PSYCHOLOGY
3. Experimental Method - Considered as the most scientific of all
methods.
The researcher investigate a phenomenon by preparing 2
identical groups and altering the conditions of one of the groups;
afterwards, measuring the difference.
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
ETHICAL ISSUES
 ETHICS
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary
when carrying out research.  We have a moral
responsibility to protect research participants from harm.
The British Psychological Society (BPS) have a code of
ethics that they publish each year.
 ETHICS
Following the immoral experiments of the Nazis in WWII, each
country set up its own set of guidelines for performing scientific
research. 
In Britain the British Psychological Society (BPS) and in the
USA the American Psychological Association (APA), produce
codes of conduct for both experimentation and for clinical
practice.
Additionally, a code exists for the protection of animals during
psychological experiments
BPS CODE OF ETHICS
1. Informed Consent
2. Avoidance of deception
3. Debriefing
4. Protection of harm
5. Right to withdraw
6. Confidentiality
THE KEY ISSUES INFORMED
CONSENT WHAT SHOULD P’S
BE TOLD?
CONSENT
PROBLEMS
 What problems do you think getting informed consent might cause?
Observations
 If you are doing some observational research in a public place. How is it possible
to ask each member of the public for consent?
Consent Problems
 If you tell the Participant too much about the research this may affect their
response
 If you do not get consent the P may be put in a position where there are doing
something they would not normally choose to do
 People may feel under pressure to consent even if they do not want to (university
students, people in prison etc)
 CONSENT
Children
 Children under the age of 16 are deemed not to be old enough to give consent.  In
this case permission has to be sought from parents or guardians.
Detained
People in prisons or psychiatric hospitals need particular consideration.  Prisoners may
feel pressured into taking part as failing to do so may prejudice their situation. 
Similar concerns apply to patients. 
Additionally with psychiatric patients permission may need to be sought from either
relatives or psychologists.
CONSENT
Students
 It has been common practice by many universities to expect students to
participate in experiments as a requirement of the course.  Here a certain degree
of coercion is used and may not be entirely ethical.
Observations and field experiments
 Piliavin conducted research on the NY underground in which stooges pretending
to be blind or drunk (not both!), fell over. 
 The research team observed the reactions of bystanders.  In situations like this
‘participants’ are not aware that they are taking part in a study so cannot give
consent. 
 In addition it is usually impossible to carry out debriefs afterwards
AVOIDANCE OF DECEPTION
This is where participants are misled or wrongly informed about
the aims of the research. 
 For example, in Milgram’s study of obedience the participants thought they
there giving electric shocks to a learner when they answered a question
wrong.  In reality no shocks were given and the learners were confederates
of Milgram.
IS DECEPTION ALWAYS
WRONG?
Well.... We should NEVER deceive to the point of causing
distress, however some deception may be necessary to avoid
demand characteristics
If the participant knows what we are looking for they are more
likely to behave in a certain way
We must be careful.. Too much deception will lead to mistrust of
Psychologists
Menges (1973) estimated that as few as 3% of studies involve no
deception at all.
DEBRIEFING
Happens at the end of the research.
Participant is given a full explanation of the research and it’s
intentions
Participants asked about their experience to iron out any negative
effects
According to Aronson (1998)
‘The experimenter must take steps to ensure that subjects leave
the experimental situation in a frame of mind that is at least as
sound as when they entered’
PROTECTION FROM HARM
This means that participants, whether animal or human must be
subject to minimal harm during the course of the research
P’s must not be put in any more harm than they would be
subjected to in their normal lives
Harm can be physical or psychological and can include self
esteem and embarrassment.
PSYCHOLOGICAL HARM

 This is more difficult to gauge but may involve embarrassment, loss of self
esteem, stress and anxiety.  
 Asch, Zimbardo and Milgram procedures would all have involved loss of
self esteem, embarrassment and some stress.  In the case of Milgram and
Zimbardo extreme anxiety.
 Confidentiality is one way of protecting participants from psychological
harm.  If you do something that you are ashamed of in the name of research
but nobody gets to know its you its not going to be so embarrassing! 
THE RIGHT TO WITHDRAW

Participants have the right to withdraw themselves or their data

from a psychological study at any time and without being
questioned or coerced.
The right to withdraw should be explained right at the beginning
of the research
LACK OF CONFIDENTIALITY
OR PRIVACY
Anonymity:
Data is not linked to a persons name
Confidentiality:
Relates to the way that data is stored and how it is used. (Need to
know basis only)
Privacy:
Not listening to a participant or reading what they right. In cases of
observational studies participants should not be observed in places
where it would not occur naturally.
 FIELDS OF
PSYCHOLOGY AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS
FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

1. Developmental Psychology – The study of human

development and the factors that shape behavior form birth to old
age.
2. Social Psychology – The study of how people think about,
influence, relate with one another, and the ways interaction with
other people influence attitudes and behavior.
3. Personality Psychology – The study of individual differences.
FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY
4. Clinical Psychology – The study of the diagnosis and treatment
of emotional and behavioral problems (mental illness, drug
addiction, marital and family conflict).
5. Counseling Psychology – The study that deals with personal
problems such as academics, social or vocational problems;
counseling psychologists deal with less serious problems
compared to clinical psychologists.
6. School and Educational Psychology – The study that deals
with the evaluation of learning and emotional problems of
individual in school.
 FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

7. Industrial/Organizational Psychology – The study involving the

selection of people most suitable for particular jobs, the development
of training programs in organization, and the identification of
determinants of consumer behavior.
8. Environmental Psychology – The study that deals with the
relationship between humans and the environment.
9. Behavioral Neuroscience – The study that employs the biological
perspective, seeking to discover the relationships between biological
processes and behavior.
FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

10. Experimental Psychology – The study that employs the

behavioral and cognitive perspective as well as the experimental
method in studying how people react to sensory stimuli, perceive
the world, learn and remember, and respond.
11. Forensic Psychology – the study that applies psychology to
the law and legal proceedings.
12. Sports Psychology – The study that applies theories and
knowledge in psychology to enhance athletes’ and coaches’
performance.
FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

15. Health Psychology – The study of the cognitive, affective,

behavioral, and interpersonal factors affecting health and illness.
16. Cross-Cultural Psychology - investigates the similarities and
differences in psychological functioning in and across various
cultures and ethnic groups.
17. Behavioral Genetics - studies the inheritance o f traits related
to behavior
FIELDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

18. Cognitive psychology - focuses on the study of higher mental

processes
19. Evolutionary psychology - considers how behavior is
influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors.
20. Psychology of Women - focuses on issues such as
discrimination against women and the causes of violence against
women