Sustaining Biodiversity:

The Species and Ecosystem

Approach
 GOALS FOR THE DAY
• THINGS THAT WE WILL LEARN ABOUT TODAY
• What Role Do Humans Play in the Loss of Species and Ecosystem Services?
• Why Should We Try to Sustain Wild Species and the Ecosystem Services They Provide?
• How Do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction and Degradation of Ecosystem Services?
• How Can We Sustain Wild Species and the Ecosystem Services They Provide?
• What Are the Major Threats to Forest Ecosystems?
• How Should We Manage and Sustain Forests
• How Should We Manage and Sustain Grasslands?
• What Is the Ecosystem Approach to Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services?
• How Can We Help to Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity?
 What Role Do Humans Play in the Extinction of
Species?
Species are becoming
extinct 100 to 1,000 times
faster than they were
before modern humans
arrived on the earth (the
background rate), and by
the end of this century, the
extinction rate is expected
to be 10,000 times the
background rate.
 Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes
They Increase Sharply
• Biological extinction
• No species member alive

• Background extinction
• Natural low rate of extinction

• Extinction rate
• Percentage or number of species that go extinct in a certain time period
 Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes
They Increase Sharply
• Mass extinction
• 3-5 events
• 50-95% of species
became extinct
• From global changes
in environmental
conditions: major
climate change,
volcanoes, asteroid
impacts
 Levels of species extinction

• Local extinction
• Occurs when a species disappears from an area in which it once
inhabited, but is found elsewhere in the world
• Ecological extinction
• Occurs when the number of members of a particular species is so
low that they cannot fulfill their ecological roles in their biological
communities
• Biological extinction
• Occurs when a species has disappeared from earth
 Some Human Activities Are Causing Extinctions
• Human activity has disturbed
at least half of the earth’s land
surface
• Fills in wetlands
• Converts grasslands and
forests to crop fields and
urban areas
• Pollution of land and water
 Extinction Rates Are Rising Rapidly
• Current extinction rate is at
least 100 times higher than
typical background rate
of .0001%
• Will rise to 10,000 times the
background rate by the end of
the century
• Rate will rise to 1% per year
• ¼ to ½ of the world’s plant
and animal species
Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological
Smoke Alarms

Endangered species

• So few members that the species could soon

become extinct

Threatened species (vulnerable

species)
• Still enough members to survive, but numbers
declining -- may soon be endangered
 Endangered and Threatened Species
Are Ecological Smoke Alarms
Characteristics of Species That Are Prone
to Ecological and Biological Extinction

• Big
• Slow
• Tasty
• Valuable parts
• Behaviors that make them easy to kill

Fig. 9-3, p. 194

Plants 70%

34% (37% of freshwater species)

Fishes

Amphibians 30%

Reptiles 28%

This graph shows the estimated

percentages of various types of
Mammals 21%
known species that are
threatened with extinction
Birds 12%
because of human activities

Fig. 9-4, p. 194

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital
4 reasons to prevent extinctions
1. Species provide natural resources and natural services
• Insects for pollination
• Birds for pest control
2. Most species contribute economic services
• Plants for food, fuel, lumber, medicine
• Ecotourism
3. It will take 5-10 million years to regain species biodiversity
4. Many people believe species have an intrinsic right to exist
 Natural Capital: Nature’s Pharmacy

Pacific yew Taxus Rosy periwinkle

brevifolia, Pacific Cathranthus
Rauvolfia Northwest roseus,
Rauvolfia sepentina, Ovarian cancer Madagascar
Southeast Asia Hodgkin's
Anxiety, high blood disease, Neem tree
pressure Foxglove lymphocytic Azadirachta
Digitalis purpurea, Cinchona
leukemia indica, India
Europe Digitalis for Cinchona
ledogeriana, South Treatment of
heart failure many diseases,
America Quinine for
malaria treatment insecticide,
spermicides

Fig. 9-7, p. 196

 Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest
Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO
• Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation
• Invasive (nonnative) species
• Population and resource use growth
• Pollution
• Climate change
• Overexploitation
 Habitat Fragmentation
• Habitat fragmentation
• Large intact habitat divided by roads, crops, urban development
• Leaves habitat islands
• Blocks migration routes
• Divides populations
• Inhibits migrations and colonization
• Inhibits finding food

• National parks and nature reserves as habitat islands

 Natural Capital Degradation
Causes of Depletion and Extinction of Wild Species

Underlying Causes
• Population growth
• Rising resource use
• Undervaluing
natural capital
• Poverty

Direct Causes
• Habitat loss • Pollution • Commercial hunting
• Climate change and poaching
• Habitat degradation
and fragmentation • Overfishing • Sale of exotic pets and
decorative plants
• Introduction of
• Predator and pest control
nonnative species

Fig. 9-9, p. 198

 Introduction of alien species

• Alien species or invasive species is define as any species that are

introduced mostly through human intervention into new habitats.
• These alien species adapt and integrate into their new habitats by
becoming competitors, predators, pathogens or parasites, in process
potentially by disrupting the natural state of ecosystem and causing
extinctions of species
• It is introduced to new habitats either by natural calamities or
accidentally through transport and importation.
• In the Philippines, the count of alien plants and animals is around 150
species
 Some Deliberately Introduced Species Can Disrupt
Ecosystems
• Most species introductions are beneficial
• Food
• Shelter
• Medicine
• Aesthetic enjoyment

• Nonnative species may have no natural

• Predators
• Competitors
• Parasites
• Pathogens
 Deliberately Introduced Species

Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee Nutria Salt cedar

(“Killer bee”) (Tamarisk)

Marine toad (Giant Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild
toad) boar (Feral pig)

Fig. 9-11a, p. 200

 Accidentally Introduced Species

Sea lamprey Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Common pigeon
(attached to lake (Rock dove)
trout)

Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned Asian tiger Gypsy moth
beetle mosquito larvae

Fig. 9-11b, p. 200

 Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce
Threats from Invasive Species
• Prevent them from becoming established
• Learn the characteristics of the species
• Set up research programs
• Try to find natural ways to control them
• International treaties
• Public education
What Can You Do? Controlling Invasive Species

Fig. 9-14, p. 203

 Other Causes of Species Extinction

• Human population growth

• Overconsumption
• Pollution
• Climate change
• Pesticides
• Bioaccumulation
• Biomagnification
 Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of
Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity
• Poaching and
smuggling of animals
and plants
• Animal parts
• Pets
• Plants for landscaping
and enjoyment
 RA9147-Wildlife resources and conservation act

• Focuses mainly on wildlife resources, with provision on conservation,

preservation, and protection of wildlife species and their respective
habitats.
• It also addresses measures on protecting threatened species as well as
managing exotic wildlife and illegal acts such as wildlife capture, hunting
and trade
 National biodiversity strategy

• Stipulates the national policy of biological diversity which outlines the

role of both civilians and the private sector in biodiversity conservation.
• In also sets guidelines on critical habitats and key biodiversity areas
 International Treaties and National Laws
Help to Protect Species
• 1975: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
• Signed by 172 countries

• Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD)

• Focuses on ecosystems
• Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)
 Accomplishments of the Endangered
Species Act (1)
• Four reasons ESA not a failure for removing only 46 species from
endangered list
1. Species listed only when in serious danger
2. Takes decades to help endangered species
3. Conditions for more than half of listed species are stable or improving
4. 2010: spend only 9 cents per American
 Science Focus: Accomplishments of the
Endangered Species Act (2)
• Three ways to improve ESA
1.Greatly increase funding
2.Develop recovery plans more quickly
3.When a species is first listed, establish the core of its habitat that’s
critical for survival

• New law needed to focus on sustaining biodiversity and

ecosystem health
Gene Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms
Can Help Protect Species
• Gene or seed banks
• Preserve genetic material of
endangered plants
• Botanical gardens and arboreta
• Living plants
• Farms to raise organisms for
commercial sale
 Wildlife banks

• A way to preserve wildlife

is to use gene banks which
are used as seed
depositories.
• These gene banks are
designed to store seeds
for a long time and are
therefore maintained at
low temperatures and low
humidity.
 Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect
Some Species
• Techniques for preserving
endangered terrestrial species
• Egg pulling
• Captive breeding
• Artificial insemination
• Embryo transfer
• Use of incubators
• Cross-fostering
IUNC PROTECTED AREA CATEGORIES SYSTEM
What Can You Do? Protecting Species

Fig. 9-22, p. 213

Sustaining Biodiversity: The
Ecosystem Approach
Introduction
• The Philippines is endowed
with diverse natural resources
from majestic forest covers to
abundant minerals resources.
• “ in fact it is regarded as one
of the best in the world “
Philippines ecological
resources
• 52,000 + species of flora and fauna
• 27,000 + sqm kilometres of coral reefs
• 9.6 million hectares of fertile agricultural lands
• 6 millions hectares of forested areas
• 18,000 kilometres of coastline
• 140,000+ mangrove forest
• 31.65 billion metric tons of metallic and non-
metallic resources
What is happening in our country
Why forest is so important
• The forest is an ecosystem comprised of a wide array of flora, fauna
and microorganism species that are in constant interface with the
environment in which they occur.
• Forest primordial role is serving as the “lung of the earth”
• Natural habitat of various types of animals
• It effects the water cycle
• Important source of raw materials
Types of Forests
• Forests cover 30% of earth’s land
surface
• Old-growth forests (36%)
• Uncut or not disturbed for several
hundred years
• Reservoirs of biodiversity ( ecological
niche)
• Second-growth forests
• Secondary ecological succession
• Tree plantation
• May supply most industrial wood in
the future
• 1 or 2 species of same age
• Violate sustainability and biodiversity
• Depletion of nutrients from topsoil
Types of Forest in the
Philippines
• Dipterocarp forest
• Molave forest
• Mangrove forest
• Mossy forest
• Pine forest
• Beach forest
Mangrove Forest
• The mangrove forest has trees that
have special root formations.
• The fruits and the seeds of the
mangrove trees can survive; can
germinate and can float in the
seawater.
• This type of forest is tidal, and it can
be found along the clayed seashore
as well as in the tidal zones in the
river estuaries
Beach Forest

• The beach forest can be

found along the beach; this
kind of forest forms a narrow
strip along the sandy coast of
the beach
Molave Forest
• Molave forests are those in the
Philippines where molave trees
grow.
• A molave is a tree that grows with
a crooked trunk.
• It reaches heights of up to 82 to 89
feet (25 to 30 meters) tall.
• The wood of this tree is valuable
because it a hard, yellow wood that
is durable.
 Dipterocarp Forest

• The dipterocarp forest covers the

largest forest areas in the
Philippines.
• It is situated from the coastal
flats going up to approximately
800 meters in the altitude.
• The dipterocarp forest is the
biggest source of lumber supply
in the country
Pine Forest
• The fine forest is usually
developed in the country’s
high plateau regions.
• This is in the altitude ranging
from seven to eight meters
above the sea level
• Mainly located in
mountainous region of the
Philippines such as mountain
province
Mossy forest
• The Mossy forest can be found along the mountains in about 1200
altitude high.
• Most of the mountainous areas have moist climate in which mossy
forest mostly developed
 The benefits derived from the forest may be
categorized into
Direct benefits Indirect benefits
• The forest are • Derive from
timber and non forest are those
timber products which we do not
or minor forest feel directly.
products • Ex: aesthetic ,
• Ex: non-timber research and
products recreational
include logs, purpose
lumber
Fig. 9-A, p. 181
The protective functions can be local or
global and included:
• Influence on climate
• Costal protection
• Function as air pollution filters
• Protection of water resources
The regulatory function of the forest
included:
• Maintenance of water cycles
• climate regulation
• Soil production and fertility and protection from erosion
• Nutrient storage and cycling
• Pollutant breakdown and absorption
• Potential source for genetic material for new drugs and food corps
Forest soil properties
• Forest soil is stabilized by a dense
mat of plant roots. Its surface is
organically littered with leaves and
twigs that protect against erosion.
• The soil is naturally porous due to
the clumping of the soil particles
and the action of invertebrates
such as earthworms burrowing
through it .The porosity helps in
water absorption and water flow.
What Are Major Threats to Forest Ecosystems?
• Ecologically valuable forest ecosystems
are being cut and burned at
unsustainable rates in many parts of the
world.
• Unsustainable cutting and burning of
forest, along with diseases and insects,
are the chief threats to forest ecosystem
• Tropical deforestation is a potentially
catastrophic problem because of the vital
ecological services at risk, the high rate
of tropical deforestation and it growing
contribution to global warming
Unsustainable logging is a Major threat to
forest ecosystem
• Increased erosion
• Sediment runoff into waterways
• Habitat fragmentation
• Loss of biodiversity
• Invasion by
• Nonnative pest
• Disease
• Wildlife species
Deforestation
• Refers to the massive clearing
of the planets forest cover
clearing of forest cover can be
the result of fires , conversion
into agricultural land, logging
for timber or simply because
land degradation can no longer
support plant life.
• Deforestation is estimated to
result in about 15% of
greenhouse gas emission
Loss of Original Forests
• Deforestation
• 46% in 8,000 years, most
since 1950
• Most in tropical areas,
developing countries
• Estimated loss of 40%
intact forests within next
20 years
Causes of Tropical Forest Deforestation and
Degradation
• Population growth and poverty
• Economic reasons
• Logging
• Ranching
• Farming
• Government subsidies
• Fires raise temperatures and
reduce rainfall
Fig. 9-10, p. 184
Major Tree
Harvesting Method
Selective cutting
• Mature trees cut singly or in groups
Clear-cutting
• Most efficient logging operation to
harvest trees
Strip cutting
• Cut a strip of tree along the
contour of the land to allow natural
regeneration
Advantages and Disadvantages of Selective logging

• Advantages
• Leaves area looking pleasant
• Minimal damage to environment
and wildlife habitats
• Promotes biodiversity

• Disadvantages
• Very expensive to harvest trees
• Process is dififcult and time
consuming for workers
 Strip cutting

• Advantages
• Less ecological distruption than clear
cutting
• Soil erosion is less severe
• Forest can regenerate naturally
without human help

• Disadvantages
• Requires a larger section of forest to
produce the same amount of yield
• More disruption to the ecosystem
Types of Fires
9-2 How Should We Manage and Sustain
Forests?
• Concept 9-2 We can sustain
forests by emphasizing the
economic value of their
ecological services, removing
government subsidies that
hasten their destruction,
protecting old-growth forests,
harvesting trees no faster than
they are replenished, and
planting trees.
 Some key interventions
are as follows
• National and local level governance,
institutional issues and polies
• Support at the community level for rights
and livelihoods
• Support for sustainable production of forest
products
• Creation of interventions for the
preservation of environmental services
Management of Forest Fires
• Fire suppression in all types of
forests
• Increased amounts of underbrush
• Increased probability of crown fires
• Prescribed fires
• Allow some fires to burn
• Thin vegetation from forests
• Thin around vulnerable homes
• Decrease flammability of homes
Ways to Reduce
Tropical
Deforestation
• Debt-for-nature swaps
• Conservation concessions
• Gentler logging methods
• Encourage use of wood
substitutes
Agricultural resources
• In the philippines, agriculture holds
a sizable share in the country’s
gross domestic product (GDP).
Amounting to an average of 20%
• The agricultural output comes
from 4 subsectors
• Forestry
• Farming
• Fishery
• Livestocks
Threats to agricultural resources
• Soil Erosion
• Agricultural soil is vulnerable to soul erosion as they have little protection from
the action of wind and rain. During dry periods or after harvest when the soil is
least porous, the slow rate of water absorption leads to increased run off.
• Soil Salinity
• Excess salts contaminating soil could result from irrigation to croplands. As
irrigation water flows over and through the ground, it dissolves salts, increasing
the salinity of the water
• Habitat destruction
• Urbanization and industrialization brings about the destruction of many natural
habitats of plant species including the major and minor agricultural crops.
Destructive pest and diseases

• Pest and diseases

infestation threaten
the agrobiodiversity
in the Philippines.
MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE
In most countries, the croplands are the
most important life support system but
recently food production has fallen short
of demand. Moreover, these croplands
are in a state of decline because of intense
demand and poor land management
• In the developing countries, the amount of
farmland per person has fallen from 0.38ha
per head in 1970 to 0.28 ha per head in
1990 .
• It is estimated to fall further to 0.15 by the
year 2050.
MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE
The issue of introducing concerns of
sustainability to agriculture is
therefore not only essential but also
imperative. This involves good
management of soil
• Preserving genetic diversity
• Integrated pest management and
integrated cultural management
• Developing higher-yield plant and
animal varieties
• Soil enrichment programs
How Should We Manage and Sustain
Grasslands?
• Concept 9-3 We can sustain the productivity of rangeland by
controlling the number and distribution of grazing livestock and by
restoring degraded grasslands.
Grasslands
• Provide important ecological
services
• Second most used and altered
ecosystem by humans
• 42% grazed by cattle, sheep, and
goats – rangeland (open) and
pasture (fenced)
• Overgrazing
Manage Rangelands Sustainably

• Practice rotational grazing

• Fence out riparian zone areas
• Suppress invader plants
• Herbicides
• Mechanical removal
• Controlled burning
• Short-term trampling
WHAT ARE CORAL
REEFS? • underwater structures made
from calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) secreted by corals.
• colonies of tiny living
animals found in marine
waters that contain few
nutrients.
• grow best in warm, shallow,
clear, sunny and agitated
waters.
• “rainforests of the sea”
• form some of the most
diverse ecosystems on Earth.
THE CORAL • occupy less than 0.1% of the world's
ocean surface.
REEFS’ • estimated to cover 284,300 sq. km
SURFACE (109,800 sq. mi).
PHILIPPINE CORAL REEFS
• The estimated reef area of the
Philippines ranges from 19,000 to
27,000 square kilometers,
depending on the territorial
boundaries and depth ranges.

TUBBATAHA REEF • Philippines’s largest coral reef • located in

the Sulu Sea, 98 nautical miles (181 km) southeast of Puerto
Princesa City in the Palawan Province.
Damage in coral reefs • Coral reefs the breeding
and spawning grounds of
many fish species, are
severely damaged by
heavy fishing and over-
exploitation.
• About 120 hectares of
coral reefs are damage
due to blast fishing and
muro ami
• It has been determined
that only 29% of 4.4million
hectares of coral reefs are
in good conditions.
IMPORTANCE OF CORAL REEF

• Sustaining
• Primary • Coastal
Tropical Marine • Tourism
Producers Protection
Ecosystems

• Medicinal • Cultural
• Fisheries
Research Significance
Importance of Coral reefs
• Create more living biomass than any other marine ecosystem
• Contribute to local economies
• Support more species than any other marine environment
• Control carbon dioxide levels in ocean ( moderates the earths surface
temperature) (take note corals are made of calcium carbonate)
• Provide protective barrier around islands and coasts
• Slows down strong currents and waves before it hits the shore
• Prevents erosion
THE DESTRUCTION OF THE REEF

HIGH AMOUNT OF
DISSOLVED
OZONE DEPLETION SEDIMENTATION
CARBON DIOXIDE
IN WATER

DESTRUCTIVE
CARELESS
FISHING CORAL MINING
TOURISM
PRACTICES
Coastal and ocean
pollution

• Oil slicks, pesticides,

• chemicals, heavy metals,
garbage, etc.
• Fertilizer and untreated sewage
encourages algae growth
• High concentrations of algae
can cover the coral and block
sunlight if not kept under
control by herbivores
Recreation

• Boat anchors crush

corals and gouge the
reef
• Diving tourism
CORAL MINING
• when people mine for
corals, they are
removed from each
other to be used as:
Overexploitation of fishery resources
Dynamite
Sodium cyanide
Electrical devices
Fine-meshed nets
Muro ami
 Coastal
Destroyed or habitats
degraded by disappearing 2-
human 10 times faster
activities than tropical
Impacts on forest

Aquatic
Ecosystems Rising sea
levels will
Ocean floor
degradation
150 times
destroy coral
larger than
reefs and some
area clear-cut
low islands
annually
Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
• Freshwater habitat
disruption
• Dams
• Water withdrawals from
rivers
• Likely extinction
• 34% marine fish species
• 71% freshwater species
• Greater than any other group
of species
How Can We Help to Sustain Aquatic
Biodiversity?
• We can help to sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected
sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water
pollution, and preventing overfishing.
Solutions for Marine Ecosystems
Protect Marine reserves –
Establish protected
endangered and work well and
marine sanctuaries
threatened species quickly

Integrated coastal Protect existing

management coastal wetlands
Management of Aquatic ecosystem
Ex situ In situ
Conservation involves the preservation of a Involves the preservation and protection of flora
certain number of species of animals or plants in and fauna in its natural settings, for example, in
certain designated areas as in germplasm banks, parks or other protected areas
zoos and botanical gardens
Fig. 9-22, p. 200
 Why Is • Human aquatic ecological footprint
Protection of expanding
• Not visible to most people
Marine • Viewed as an inexhaustible resource
Biodiversity So • Most ocean areas outside jurisdiction of
a country
Difficult?
Classification of inland and surface and
costal water bodies
Classification Use
Class AA Intended as public water supply requiring only approved disinfection
Class A Suitable as water supply requiring conventional treatment
Class B Intended for primary contact recreation (bathing , swimming etc)
Class C For fishery, recreation, supply for manufacturing processes after treatment
Class D Intended for agriculture , irrigation and livestock watering
Class SA Protected marine habitat
Class SB Contact recreation (tourist zone)
Class SC Aquaculture production
Class SD Industrial water supply
How Should We Manage and Sustain Parks and Nature
Reserves?
• Concept 9-4 We need to put more • >1,100 national parks in 120
resources into sustaining existing countries
parks and nature reserves and into
protecting much more of the earth’s • Only 1% of parks in
remaining undisturbed land area. developing countries are
protected
• Local people invade parks to
survive
• Logging
• Mining
• Poaching
Problems Protecting National Parks
• Illegal logging
• Illegal mining
• Wildlife poaching
• Most parks too small to
protect large animals
• Invasion of nonnative
species
Nature Reserves Occupy a Fraction of Earth
• 12% of earth’s land
protected
• Only 5% fully protected –
95% reserved for human
use
• Need for conservation
• Minimum 20% of land in
biodiversity reserves
• Protection for all biomes
How Can We Help to Sustain Terrestrial
Biodiversity?
• We can help to sustain terrestrial biodiversity by identifying and
protecting severely threatened areas (biodiversity hotspots),
rehabilitating damaged ecosystems (using restoration ecology), and
sharing with other species much of the land we dominate (using
reconciliation ecology).
Three Principles to
Protect
Ecosystems
1. Map and inventory the
world’s terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems
2. Locate and protect the
most endangered
ecosystems, with a focus on
biodiversity
3. Seek to restore as many
degraded ecosystems as
possible
 Protecting Global Biodiversity Hotspots
• 17 megadiversity
countries, mostly in
tropics and subtropics
• Two-thirds of
biodiversity
• Developing countries
economically poor and
biodiversity rich
• Protect biodiversity
hotspots
Ecological
Restoration
Restoration

Rehabilitation

Replacement

Creating artificial ecosystems

 Activity
• Make a collage of Philippine endangered species and
extinct animals (min 5)
• How does humans cause extinction of species (min 5)
• Give example of alien species in the Philippines (min 5)
• In the Philippines enumerate the projects made by the
local government to combat the extinction of animals